Constance of Arles (c. 986 - 28 July 1032), also known as Constance of Provence, was the third wife and queen consort of King Robert II of France.

Born c. 986^[1] Constance was the daughter of William I, count of Provence and Adelaide-Blanche of Anjou, daughter of Fulk II of Anjou.^[2] She was the half-sister of Count William II of Provence.^[2] Constance was married to King Robert, after his divorce from his second wife, Bertha of Burgundy.^[3] The marriage was stormy; Bertha's family opposed her, and Constance was despised for importing her Provençal kinfolk and customs. Robert's friend, Hugh of Beauvais, tried to convince the king to repudiate her in 1007. Possibly at her request twelve knights of her kinsman, Fulk Nerra, then murdered Beauvais.^[4]

In 1010 Robert went to Rome, followed by his former wife Bertha, to seek permission to divorce Constance and remarry Bertha. Pope Sergius IV was not about to allow a consanguineousmarriage which had been formally condemned by Pope Gregory V and Robert had already repudiated two wives. So the request was denied. After his return according to one source Robert "loved his wife more."^[5]

In the famous trial in 1022 of members of the clergy, including Constance's previous confessor Stephen, on charges of heresy Robert had his wife Queen Constance stand at the door to prevent any mob violence. However as the condemned clerics left the trial the queen "struck out the eye of Stephen... with the staff which she carried". This was seen as Constance venting her frustration at anyone subverting the prestige of the crown.^[6]

 

Tomb of Robert 'the Pious' and Constance of Arles at Saint-Denis

At Constance's urging, her eldest son Hugh Magnus was crowned co-king alongside his father in 1017.^[7] But later Hugh demanded his parents share power with him, and rebelled against his father in 1025. Constance, however, on learning of her son's rebellion was furious with him rebuking him at every turn. At some point Hugh was reconciled with his parents but shortly thereafter died, probably about age eighteen.^[8]

Robert and Constance quarrelled over which of their surviving sons should inherit the throne; Robert favored their second son Henry, while Constance favored their third son, Robert.^[8]Despite his mother's protests and her support by several bishops, Henry was crowned in 1027. Constance, however, was not graceful when she didn't get her way.^[9] The ailing Fulbert, bishop of Chartres told a colleague that he could attend the ceremony "if he traveled slowly to Reims—but he was too frightened of the queen to go at all".^[9]

Constance encouraged her sons to rebel, and they began attacking and pillaging the towns and castles belonging to their father. Robert attacked Burgundy, the duchy he had been promised but had never received, and Henry seized Dreux. At last King Robert agreed to their demands and peace was made which lasted until the king's death.

King Robert died on 20 July 1031.^[10] Soon afterwards Constance was at odds with both her surviving sons. Constance seized her dower lands and refused to surrender them. Henry fled to Normandy, where he received aid, weapons and soldiers from his brother Robert. He returned to besiege his mother at Poissy but Constance escaped to Pontoise. She only surrendered when Henry began the siege of Le Puiset and swore to slaughter all the inhabitants.

Constance died 28 July 1032.^[2] and was buried beside her husband Robert at Saint-Denis Basilica.

Cunigunda (c. 893 – aft. 923) was the daughter of Ermentrude of France, daughter in turn of Louis the Stammerer, king of the Franks. The identity of her father is unknown.

Family

In 909, Cunigunda married Wigeric of Lotharingia (890-919), and had:

• Frederick I (d. 978), who was count of Bar and duke of Upper Lorraine
• Adalberon I (d. 962), elected bishop of Metz in 929
• Gilbert (d. 964), count in the Ardennes
• Sigebert, mentioned in 942.
• Liutgarde, who married Adalbert, Count of Metz, then Eberhard IV, count of Nordgau.
• Gozlin, Count of Bidgau (d. 942), married to Oda of Metz and father of Godfrey I, Count of Verdun.
• Siegfried, count of Luxembourg.

Around 922, she married Ricuin, count of Verdun (d. 923).

Cuthwine, born c. 565, was a member of the House of Wessex, son of Ceawlin of Wessex.^[1] After the deposition of his father Ceawlin from the throne of Wessex in 592 he did not inherit the throne which passed to his cousin, Ceol. Instead he went into exile for many decades, remaining a strong leader of the Saxons and passing on the royal line through his three sons.

Early life

He was born in the fifth year of his father's long reign over the West Saxons. He was a grandson of Cynric, the son of Cerdic, the first of the Saxons to come across the sea from Germany; and he and his people were still relatively out of place in a world dominated by the Britons. Nothing is known of his early life.

Ceawlin lost the throne of Wessex in June 592. The annal for that year in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reads, at least in part: “Here there was great slaughter at Woden’s Barrow, and Ceawlin was driven out.” Woden’s Barrow is a tumulus, now called Adam’s Grave, at Alton Priors, Wiltshire. His opponent was Ceol, the next king of Wessex, who ruled for six years. Ceawlin died in exile the following year, along with Cwichelm and Crida, his brothers and commanders of the armies is what is now Dorset and Hampshire.

The origins of the battle are unclear; it is probable that nothing more than greed and a lust for power motivated Ceol. Cuthwine, then twenty-seven, was a commander in the fateful battle; but upon defeat, as the rightful heir to the throne, he fled the place along with his family.

Exile

As stated above, the following year (593) saw the deaths of his father and uncles in unclear circumstances, although likely in another battle. Cuthwine escaped from this defeat also, and went into exile to the east with his young family (see below). For the first few years at least he lived as an outlaw, although his persecution seems to have waned somewhat when Ceol was supplanted by his brother.

Ceol, described as a ruthless leader, was a son of Cutha (the brother of Ceawlin and a son of Cynric) and hence a cousin of Cuthwine; and Ceolwulf, his brother, reigned for seventeen years after him. Great fragmentation of control among the West Saxons occurred at this time: Ceol and Ceolwulf were in control of Wiltshire, as opposed to the upper Thames valley where Cuthwine and his household were almost certainly based. Other factions are believed to have existed in Devon and Gloucestershire as the house of Ceol struggled to increase their supremacy over Wessex.

If Ceol and Ceolwulf made efforts to eradicate the members of the original branch of the ruling family, they were unsuccessful. At any rate Cuthwine remained at large during this period and some sources indicate that around the year 605 Ceolwulf may have been forced into a power-sharing deal with him, his brother (with whom he had previously shared power) having been dead seven years. At any rate, Cuthwine was far from a fugitive after the first few years of his supposed exile.

In his princely years before the death of his father Cuthwine had at least three sons; Cynebald, born 585; Cedda, born 590, and Cutha Cathwulf, born 592. The name of their mother is not recorded, but it is possible that she died in the tumult surrounding Cuthwine's flight into exile given that Cuthwine had no more children after that time. Cedda became the father of Coenberht, in turn the Caedwalla of Wessex and his brother Mul of Kent, both kings in later years. Through Cutha Cathwulf, Cuthwine's youngest son, were ultimately descended the Kings of Wessex after the line of Ceol became extinct in 685.

Later life

He lived a long life, remaining in a powerful position throughout the reign of Cynegils son of Ceol; and then Cenwalh, son of Cynegils, became king. In the year 645 Penda of Mercia overran the kingdom (in return for Cenwalh's repudiation of Penda's sister) and was for three years king, sending Cenwalh into exile in East Anglia. Cuthwine is recorded as having been present at the negotiations along with his sons, but little more is known of his activities. Nevertheless, much can be deduced. If this experienced prince was not the sole ruler of Wessex during the years of Cenwalh's exile (naturally in a subservient position to Penda) then it is likely that he was a member of the ruling body; but, given the tangled diplomacy of the times and his eastern power base, it is equally likely that he aided Cenwalh in his successful attempt to regain the throne in 648.

After this, he appears infrequently as a shadowy figure, apparently already passing into legend among the common people as a result of his long-held position against the (at times) brutal role of Ceol and his family. There is reason to suggest that he was already dead by this time; at any rate he would have been past eighty by the beginning of Cenwalh's reign and it seems inconceivable that he would have lived to see the reinstatement of his line to the throne of Wessex.

This enigmatic prince and his long roster of descendants were not forgotten by the West Saxons, however. When the line of Ceol finally became extinct, first Caedwalla of Wessex and then Ine of Wessex became king; both great-grandsons of Cuthwine. Egbert of Wessex, ancestor of the later Kings of England, descends from Ine's brother and hence also from Cuthwine.

Cynric was King of Wessex from 534 to 560. Everything known about him comes from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. There he is stated to have been the son of Cerdic, and also (in the regnal list in the preface) to have been the son of Cerdic's son, Creoda. During his reign it is said that the Saxons expanded into Wiltshire against strong resistance and captured Searobyrig or Old Sarum, near Salisbury, in 552. In 556 he and his son Ceawlin won a battle against the Britons at Beranburh, now identified as Barbury Castle.^[2] If these dates are accurate, then it is unlikely that the earlier entries in the Chronicle, starting with his arrival in Britain with his father Cerdic in 495, are correct. David Dumville has suggested that his true regnal dates are 554-581.

Dietrich of Ringelheim^{[n 1]} was a Saxon earl of the Middle Ages.

Dietrich of Ringelheim of the House of the Saxon Prince Wittekind, father of Matilda, was known as the Earl of Ringelheim when his daughter married the Duke of Saxony, later Henry the Fowler.^[1] He was probably born in the second half of the 9th century, a few decades after the Saxons were brought under the control of Charlemagne's Frankish empire. His date of death is uncertain, but might have been after the 910s according to the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences and Letters.

Reinhild, his wife and the mother of Matilda, was of "royal Danish and Frisian blood"

Drahomíra (877/90–died after 935) was a Bohemian duchess consort, wife of duke Vratislav I of Bohemia and mother of Saint Wenceslas and Boleslaus I of Bohemia. She was the regent of Bohemia in 921–924 during the minority of her son.

Life

Drahomíra's homeland was around Brandenburg, a castle near present-day Berlin. She was a princess of the Havolans.

She married Vratislav I of Bohemia and gave birth to at least three children: Saint Wenceslas, Boleslaus I and Střezislava. She led her husband to cooperation with her Hevellirelatives, which waged war against Saxony. After her husband's untimely death in 921, she and her mother-in-law, Saint Ludmila, divided the government of Bohemia.

Popular history depicts Ludmila as a restrained and pious grandmother, but it is likely that the political demands of government called for more energy and worldliness than history records. Wenceslas was one of the main reasons for the eventually fatal discord between Drahomíra and Ludmila. Ludmila had exerted great influence over Drahomíra's eldest son, Wenceslas, leaving Drahomíra to concentrate her efforts on her younger son, Boleslaus.

Despite or perhaps as a result of her political and personal efforts, Ludmila attracted Drahomíra's bitter enmity. Ludmila fled ^[1] to Tetín castle, where her daughter-in-law's hired assassins, Tunna and Gommon, murdered her.

When Drahomíra's son Wenceslas, came to power, he sent his mother into exile, though he later called her back.

Ealhswith or Ealswitha (died 5 December 902) was the wife of King Alfred the Great. Her father was a Mercian nobleman, Æthelred Mucil (or Mucel), Ealdorman of the Gaini, which is thought to be an old Mercian tribal group. Her mother was Eadburh, a member of the Mercian royal family, and according to the historian Cyril Hart she was a descendant of King Cenwulf of Mercia.

Life

She was married to Alfred in 868. His elder brother Æthelred was then king, and Alfred was regarded as heir apparent.^[2][3] The Danes occupied the Mercian town of Nottingham in that year, and the marriage was probably connected with an alliance between Wessex and Mercia.^[4] Alfred became king on his brother's death in 871.

Ealhswith is very obscure in contemporary sources. She did not witness any known charters, and Asser did not even mention her name in his life of King Alfred. In accordance with ninth century West Saxon custom, she was not given the title of queen. According to King Alfred, this was because of the infamous conduct of a former queen of Wessex called Eadburh, who had accidentally poisoned her husband.^[5]

Alfred left his wife three important symbolic estates in his will, Edington in Wiltshire, the site of one important victory over the Vikings, Lambourn in Berkshire, which was near another, andWantage, his birthplace. These were all part of his bookland, and they stayed in royal possession after her death.^[3]

It was probably after Alfred's death in 899 that Ealhswith founded the convent of St Mary's Abbey, Winchester, known as the Nunnaminster. She died on 5 December 902, and was buried in her son Edward's new Benedictine abbey, the New Minster, Winchester. She is commemorated in two early tenth century manuscripts as "the true and dear lady of the English".

Children

Alfred and Ealhswith had five children who survived to adulthood.^[3]

• Æthelflæd (d. 918), Lady of the Mercians, married Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians
• Edward the Elder (d. 924), King of the Anglo-Saxons
• Æthelgifu, made abbess of her foundation at Shaftesbury by her father
• Ælfthryth, Countess of Flanders (d. 929), married Baldwin II, Count of Flanders
• Æthelweard (d. c.920)

Eberhard (c. 815 – 16 December 866) was the Frankish Duke of Friuli from 846. His name is alternatively spelled Everard, Evrard, Erhard, Eberhard, or Eberard, or in Latinized fashion Everardus, Eberardus, or Eberhardus. He wrote his own name "Evvrardus".^[1] He was an important political, military, and cultural figure in the Carolingian Empire during his lifetime. He kept a large library, commissioned works of Latin literature from Lupus Servatus andSedulius Scottus, and maintained a correspondence with the noted theologians and church leaders Gottschalk, Rabanus Maurus, and Hincmar.

Eoppa was, although a member of the direct male line from Cynric to Egbert, never a king due to usurpations by junior branches of the family. He was born c. 706 and his death date is unknown.

Ermentrude (c. 875 - ?) was the daughter of Louis the Stammerer, king of France and of his first wife, Ansgarde of Burgundy, daughter of Hardouin of Burgundy. Her daughter, Cunigunda, first in 909 married Wigeric, count of Bidgau and count palatine of Lotharingia, then in 922 married Ricuin, count of Verdun (d. 923).

Fulk I of Anjou (c. 870 – 942), called 'the Red' (Latin: Rufus) (French: Le Roux), held the county of Anjou first as Viscount then Count until his death.

Life

Born about c. 870,^[1] Fulk was the son of Ingelger of Anjou and Adelais de Amboise.^[2] He was the first count of Anjou ruling the county from c. 908 to 942.^[2] In 899 he became Viscount of Tours and in 905, Count of Tours.^[2]About 900–918 he was Count of Nantes, and in 929 he became count of Anjou.^[2] He increased the territory as a viscountcy of Angers and it became a county around 929. During his reign, he was permanently at war with theNormans and the Bretons. He occupied the county of Nantes in 907, but abandoned it to the Bretons in 919. Fulk I died around 942.

Family

Fulk married Roscille de Loches, daughter of Warnerius (Widone), Seigneur de Loches, de Villentrois, & de la Haye, and his wife Tecandra.^[2] He and Roscille had:

• Ingelger († bef. 927).^[2]
• Guy (Wido), Bishop of Soissons († 970).^[2][3]
• Fulk II. Succeeded his father as Count of Anjou.

Fulk II of Anjou (c. 905 — 960), called le Bon (the good) was count of Anjou from 941 to his death.

Life

Fulk II born c. 905^[1] was a son of Fulk the Red and his wife Roscilla de Loches, daughter of Warnerius, Seigneur de Villentrois.^[2] He succeeded his father in 942 as the second count of Anjou,^[3] also called the count of Angers, and remained in power until 960.^[4]

The Angevins, Fulk II included, had become particularly adept at establishing marriage alliances that furthered their goals.^[5] His father, Fulk the Red had arranged his marriage to a Carolingian, Gerberga, the daughter of Ratburnus I Viscount of Vienne.^[6] Among other things this alliance opened the doors for their daughter Adelaide-Blanche to marry a future king of France and their son Guy to become Bishop of le Puy.^[6]

After her death c. 952 Fulk made another astute political marriage to Adelaide, the widow of Alan II, Duke of Brittany. Alan II had also been Count of Nantes and through this marriage Fulk gained influence in, and possibly control of, Nantes.^[7] Adelaide was also the sister of Theobald I, Count of Blois which permitted Fulk II to form an alliance with the House of Blois.

Family

By his spouse, Gerberge, a woman of unknown origins.^[8] Fulk II had several children:

• Adelaide-Blanche of Anjou, married five times.^[2]
• Geoffrey I, Count of Anjou, married Adelaide of Vermandois.^[2]
• Bouchard, Count of Vendome.^[2]
• Guy of Anjou, Bishop of le Puy.^[2]
• Humbert d'Anjou, mentioned 957.^[2]

Fulk II had no known issue with Adelaide.

Fulk died in 960,at the relatively old age of 55.^[9] He was succeeded by his 20 year old son Geoffrey Greymantle.

Gerard I of Paris (d. 779) was a count of Paris. He was the founder of the house of Girardids.

According to various sources, he married a certain Rotrude who may have been a daughter of Carloman, son of Charles Martel. From this union was born:

• the future count Stephen of Paris (c. 754-811/815)
• the future count Leuthard I of Paris (?-813)
• the future count Beggo of Paris (?-816)

His son Stephen of Paris succeeded him to the title of count of Paris.

Gerberga of Saxony (also Gerberga of France) (c. 913–5 May 968/9 or 984?) was a member of the Ottonian dynasty and a descendant of Charlemagne. Her first husband wasGilbert, Duke of Lorraine. Her second husband was Louis IV of France. Contemporary sources describe her as a highly educated, intelligent and forceful political player.

Family

Gerberga was born c.913. She was the oldest daughter of Henry the Fowler, King of Germany, and his second wife, Matilda of Ringelheim. Her older brother was Otto I of Germany.

First marriage

In 928, Gerberga married her first husband, Gilbert, Duke of Lorraine.^[1] They had four children:

• Alberade of Lorraine b. about 929. Married Renaud (originally as Ragenold), a Viking chieftain who became the Count of Roucy

• Henry, Duke of Lorraine b. about 932

• Gerberge of Lorraine b. about 935. Married Adalbert I of Vermandois.

• Wiltrude, b. about 937.

Jocundus, a Lotharingia chronicler writing in the 1070s, recorded that Gerberga was the driving force behind Gilbert's decision to support her younger brother Henry when he rebelled against her older brother Otto I c.936.^[2] Giselbert was defeated by Otto I in 939 at the Battle of Andernach and, while trying to escape, drowned in the Rhine.

Second marriage

When Gilbert died, Gerberga was about 26 years old. She married secondly Louis IV of France in 939. They were parents to eight children:

• Lothair of France (941–986)

• Matilda b. about 943; married Conrad of Burgundy

• Hildegarde b. about 944

• Carloman b. about 945

• Louis b. about 948

• Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine (953–993)

• Alberade b. before 953

• Henry b. about 953

Gerhard I of Metz (c. 875 – 22 Jun 910) was count of Metz. He was the son of Adalhard (c. 850 – 2 Jan 890), count of Metz, himself son of Adalard the Seneschal and a daughter of Matfried, count of Eifel (c. 820 – bef. 18 Sep 882)

He tried in vain to rule Lotharingia with his brothers Steven and Matfried I (count of Eifel).In 897, Gerhard and his brothers were in conflict with King Zwentibold. They were first rejected, and reconciled shortly after.
He led an uprising with his brother Matfried, and in 900 defeated and killed Zwentibold on the battlefield of Susteren.
He went to war, again with Matfried, in 906 against the count Conrad.
He was killed in a battle against the Bavarian army on 22 June 910.

Family

After 13 August 900, Gerhard married the widow of Zwentibold, Oda (c. 880 – bef. 952), daughter of Otto I, Duke of Saxony, and had:

• Wigfried (d. 9 Jul 953), abbot of St. Ursula of Cologne, then archbishop of Cologne from 924 to 953,
• Oda (d. bef. 18 May 963), married Gozlin, Count of Bidgau and Methingau (d. 942),
• unknown daughter
• Godfrey (d. bef. 949), count of Jülichgau.

Oda of Saxony remarried to Eberhard, count in Oberlahngau.

Gerold of Vinzgau (also Vintzgouw or Anglachgau; d. 784/786 or 795) was a count in Kraichgau and Anglachgau. His daughter married King Charlemagne in 771. In 784 generous donations to the monastery of Lorsch by Gerold and Emma are recorded.

Marriage and issue

He married by 758 to Emma (d. 789 or 798 or after 784), daughter of Hnabi, Duke of Alamannia. They had the following:

• Gerold
• Udalrich
• Hildegard, born in 758, married King Charlemagne in 771.
• probably Adrian, Count of Orléans, father of Odo I, Count of Orléans
• Eric of Friuli (?), not listed on the site of the Foundation for Medieval Genealogy

Through Udalrich, Gerold is reckoned as the founder of the family of the Udalrichings.

Gertrude of Saxony (c. 1030 – August 4, 1113), also known as Gertrude Billung, was a countess consort of Holland, and a countess consort of Flanders by marriage. She was regent of Holland during the minority of her son.

She was the daughter of Bernard II, Duke of Saxony and Eilika of Schweinfurt. She married Floris I, Count of Holland (c. 1017 – June 28, 1061) c. 1050, and upon his death, her son Dirk V became Count of Holland. Since he was still young, she became regent.

When Dirk V came into power, William I, Bishop of Utrecht, took advantage of the situation, occupying territory that he had claimed in Holland. Gertrude and her son withdrew to the islands of Frisia (Zeeland), leaving William to occupy the disputed lands.

In 1063 Gertrude married Robert of Flanders (Robert the Frisian), the second son of Baldwin V of Flanders. This act gave Dirk the Imperial Flanders as an appanage – including the islands of Frisia west of the Frisian Scheldt. She and her husband then acted as co-regents for the young count.

She had a total of seven children with Floris I:

1. Albert (b. c. 1051), a canon in Liege.
2. Dirk V (c. 1052, Vlaardingen–17 June 1091).
3. Peter (b. c. 1053), a canon in Liége.
4. Bertha (c. 1055–1094, Montreuil-sur-Mer), who married Philip I of France in 1072.
5. Floris (b. c. 1055), a canon in Liége.
6. Matilda (b. c. 1057)
7. Adela (b. c. 1061), who married Count Baudouin I of Guînes.

From her second marriage to Robert I she had five children:

1. Robert II of Flanders (c. 1065 – October 5, 1111).
2. Adela (d. 1115), who first married king Canute IV of Denmark, and was the mother of Charles the Good, later count of Flanders. She then married Roger Borsa, duke of Apulia.
3. Gertrude, who married Theodoric II, Duke of Lorraine, and was the mother of Thierry of Alsace, also later count of Flanders.
4. Philip of Loo, whose illegitimate son William of Ypres was also a claimant to the county of Flanders.
5. Ogiva, abbess of Messines.

Gunhild Kongemor (levde første halvdel av 900-tallet) var norsk dronning, gift med Eirik Blodøks, og mor til Eirikssønnene: Harald Gråfell, Gamle, Gudrød og Sigurd Sleva.

Ifølge Ágrip, Fagerskinna og Heimskringla var hun datter av en høvding fra Hålogaland ved navn Ossur Tote. Fagerskinna og Heimskringla hevder at Gunhild ble oppfostret av samer, og opplært i trolldom av dem. Heimskringla forteller at Eiriks menn i Finnmark kom «over en gamme med en kvinne så vakker at de aldri hadde sett noe lignende». Hun forklarte at hun var der for å lære trolldom av to trollmenn, «de viseste i Finnmark. Nå er de ute på veiding, men de vil ha meg begge to, og begge er så dyktige at de kan følge spor som hunder, både i mildvær og på skare.» Ingen unnslapp dem, og alt de skjøt på, traff de. «Blir de sinte, snur jorden seg opp ned når de ser på den. Og om de setter øynene på noe levende, falder det dødt ned.» Hun tilbød å gjemme Eiriks følge i gammen, «så får vi friste om vi kan få drept dem». Gunhild dro sekker over hodene på de hjemkomne trollmennene mens de sov, så de ikke kunne bruke trolldommen sin; dermed kunne Eirik og følget hans drepe dem. Eirik tok så med seg Gunhild sørover, men stanset på Helgeland for å be om tillatelse fra faren hennes.^[1]

Mer sannsynlige kilder som Historia Norwegiæ gjør Gunhild til datter av Gorm den gamle og Thyra Danebod, og dermed søster til Harald Blåtann. Denne versjonen forklarer hvorfor Gunhild og Eirik kalte en av sønnene sine Gorm, som var et sjeldent navn med tilknytning til Jelling-ætten; og hvorfor Blåtann senere støttet Eiriks krigstokter, slik at Eiriks sønn Harald Gråfell vant tilbake makten i Norge, noe som var med på å gjenopprette et dansk overherredømme i deler av Sør-Norge.^[2]

Gunhild beskrives i sagaene som den vakreste blant kvinner, men liten av skikkelse. I Snorre Sturlasons framstilling i Heimskringla blir hun skildret som manipulerende, grådig og usympatisk, og hennes tilknytning til «finnene» gir henne magiske evner. Idéen om ondskapsfulle kvinner som lokker menn på avveie, går imidlertid tilbake til Bibelens Adam og Eva, og var standardfigurer i middelalderens litteratur på den tiden da sagaene blev nedskrevet.^[3]Historien om at Gunhild hadde lært trolldom nordpå, ligner påfallende på historien om Harald Hårfagres samiske kone, Snøfrid Svåsedatter, som trollbandt sin kongelige ektemann slik at han mistet både dømmekraft og autoritetfullstendig. Det er en type litterær gjentagelse som er typisk for sagaene, og reduserer deres verdi som historiske kilder.^[4]

Håkon Sigurdsson, Håkon jarl, Håkon Ladejarl, Håkon jarl den rike (norrønt: Hákon jarl inn ríki) (født 935, død 995) var jarl av Norge og fungerte i praksis som norsk konge fra 970 til995. Formelt var han og hans norske rike underlagt danskekongene Harald Blåtann (Harald Gormsson) og sønnen Svein Tjugeskjegg. Håkon var sønn av Sigurd Håkonsson Ladejarl, han var far til Eirik jarl og Svein jarl og hans regjeringstid falt sammen med ladejarlenes storhetstid i Norge i siste halvdel av det 10. århundre..

Harald Gormsson Blåtann, norrønt Haraldr blátönn, (ca. 930 – 986) regnes som Danmarks første reelle konge, som med utgangspunkt i en mindre region ble konge over hele det som i dag er Danmark. Harald Blåtann er også den første danske konge som trår ut av sagnkongenes halvmørke og blir en historisk figur dokumentert i skrift og stein. Mens danskekongen måtte underkaste seg den tyskromerske keiseren i sør forsøkte han selv underkaste norske herskere i nord. Et maktmiddel i dette var å innføre kristendommen som offisiell religion.

Harald Blåtann på Stein

Harald Blåtann var født en gang rundt 930 som sønn av kong Gorm den gamle, konge over Jylland, og Tyra Danebod. Harald døde i 986 etter å ha styrt Danmark fra rundt 958 og hevdet også delvis overherredømme over et så utstrakt og selvstendig land som Norge for en viss tid fra 970.

Harald Blåtanns biografi blir oppsummert på en runeinskripsjon på Jellingsteinene som han lot reise for å ære sine foreldre. På norrønt står det:

Haraltr kunukr bath kaurua kubl thausi aft kurm fathur sin auk aft thaurui muthur sina. sa haraltr ias sar uan tanmaurk ala auk nuruiak auk tani karthi kristna.

Harald, konge, ba gjøre disse kumbler [minner] etter Gorm sin far og Tyra sin mor, den Harald som vant seg hele Danmark og Norge og gjorde danene kristne.

Hva som menes med «vant seg hele Danmark og Norge» er omstridt. Noen har tolket det slik at Danmark var splittet mellom flere småkonger, og Harald Blåtann samlet det meste av Danmark under sin autoritet slik Harald Hårfagrehadde gjort i Norge. Det kan også bety at han gjenerobret det sydlige Jylland som muligens hadde vært under tysk kontroll i en periode.

Hans krav på å være konge over Norge skal ikke overdrives. Det strakte seg stort sett til at stormennene i Viken og rundt Oslofjorden sendte gaver for å beholde en viss form for uavhengighet. Etter at Harald Gråfell var død var det ingen reell autoritet i Norge inntil Håkon jarl markerte seg. Harald Blåtann forsøkte å hevde sin autoritet over Norge, men det store invasjonsforsøket som endte i et storslått nederlag i Hjørungavåg, den første gangen Norge som samlet nasjon hevdet sin selvstendighet overfor Danmark i krig. Snorre Sturlason skriver i Heimskringla at «Håkon jarl lot folk bygge og bo over hele landet og svarte aldri mer skatt til danekongen.»

Harald Hårfagre (gammelnorsk: Haraldr hárfagri) (født ca. 850 og død ca. 931-932) regnes som den første kongen over en større del av Norge. Han var konge over Sogn fra om lag 860og regnes ofte som konge over Vestlandet og Trøndelag fra ca. år 872 til sin død. Årstall fra denne perioden må uansett sees som antydninger og ikke som fakta

Familie og opphav

Harald Hårfagre skal ha hatt mange barn, med forskjellige kvinner. Hvor mange han fikk, er ukjent. I Historia Norvegiæ sies det at han hadde 16 sønner. Ågrip og Fagrskinna^[5] gir navnene på 20 av Haralds sønner. Snorre sier ikke noe om antallet. Etter Historia Norvegiæ var Eirik Blodøks den eldste, mens Snorre mente at Guttorm var den eldste. Etter Fagrskinna var Eirik blant de eldste. Fagrskinna regnet Håkon den gode til å være blant de yngste.

Etter Haralds død ble det å stamme fra Harald Hårfagre politisk opportunt: det ga arverett til kongemakten. Å ha Harald Hårfagre som oldefar ga uendelig mye mer legitimitet til et maktprosjekt enn å stamme fra en tilfeldig småkonge. Det er mer enn sannsynlig at mange av de slektslinjene som senere tiders høvdinger viste til, hadde blitt redigert av hensyn til dette. Det kan reises berettiget tvil om kongene Olav Tryggvason, Olav Haraldson og Harald Hardråde var etterkommere til Harald Hårfagre.

Bosted

Kildene gir motstridende opplysninger med hensyn til hvor Harald bodde. Årsaken kan være at kunnskapen var gått tapt fram til de første sagaene ble nedskrevet 300 år etter at Harald levde.

Fagerskinna forteller at hans hovedgard var Gaular, da han var konge i Sogn.^[7]

Verken Theodoricus monachus' Historien om de gamle norske kongene, Ågrip eller Fagerskinna fortalte hvor Harald bodde da han var konge over et større område.

Haraldskvadet forteller at Harald oppholdt seg på Utstein, sannsynligvis ved dagens Utstein kloster på Mosterøy. Teksten er knyttet til slaget i Hafrsfjord, og lyder: «østmenns herre som holder til på Utstein».^[8]

Ifølge Heimskringla^[9] og Egils saga^[10] styrte Harald sitt rike ved å oppholde seg på gardene Alreksstad i Bergen, Seim i Nordhordland, Fitjar på Stord, Utstein og Avaldsnes. Om Snorre Sturlason baserte dette på kilder eller om det er diktning vet vi ikke.

Det kan være at han en tid bodde på Gaular, og senere på Utstein, men det er svært usikkert.

Tilnavn

Harald Hårfagre mener en er kjent under tilnavnene Harald Luva, Harald Hårfagre og Harald Dovrefoster. Bare Luva er kjent brukt i hans egen samtid. I Flóamannasaga fra omkring år 1300 ble det fortalt at Harald først ble kalt «Dovrefoster», deretter Luva og til slutt «Hårfagre».

Tilnavnet «Dovrefoster» kommer av at han etter en sagntradisjon skulle ha blitt oppfostret hos et troll som het Dovre, men som kan tolkes som Odin selv. Det skal også ha vært en egen saga om Harald Dovrefoster fra 1100-tallet, men som nå er tapt. Denne skal ha gitt en rekke eventyraktige fortellinger om Harald, som blant annet Fagrskinna og Heimskringla skal ha hentet noen av sine fortellinger fra.

Tilnavnet «Luva» ser en brukt i skaldediktningen omkring slaget ved Hafrsfjord, men en vet likevel ikke helt sikkert at diktet er om Harald Hårfagre.^[11]

Ifølge et opphavssagn for «Hårfagre»-navnet, gjengitt blant annet i Heimskringla, lot Harald håret gro fra han bestemte seg til å bli Norges konge til målet var nådd.^[12] Allerede for 200 år siden begynte historikerne å regne fortellingen som ikke noe annet enn et sagn.

Konge på vestlandet

Sagaene som vi har tilgang på gir vidt forskjellig inntrykk av hvor Harald vokste opp, hva som var hans maktbasis og hvilke deler av landet han erobret. Han framstilles både som en vestlandskonge og en østlandskonge. Fagrskinnasom er den eldste kongesagaen vi har tilgang på, gjør Vestlandet og Sogn til utgangspunkt. Heimskringla gjør Østlandet og Vestfold til utgangspunkt. Egils saga gjør «øst i Viken» (Østfold?) til utgangspunktet. Fagrskinna har trolig bygd på Sæmund Frode, og Heimskringla og Egils saga på Are Frode.^[13] På 1800-tallet og i første halvdel av 1900-tallet hadde Snorres beretning størst gjennomslagskraft. Johan Schreiner gjorde seg i 1936 til talsmann for at Harald var en vestlandskonge.^[14] I dag er det den helt dominerende oppfatningen, men uten at det er helt konsensus.

Den mest sannsynlige begivenhetsrekken er at Harald Hårfagre ble konge i Sogn i tiårsalderen etter sin morfar Harald Gullskjegg. Diktet Noregs Konungstal knytter også Harald mot Sogn, som Sognekonge, før han starter sine erobringer. Med basis i Sogn^[15] har han så erobret Hordaland og Rogaland.

For å kunne klare det, gikk han sammen med Ladejarlen Håkon Grjotgardson. Håkon tok over styring av Sogn^[16] etter Harald Hårfagre, mens Harald hadde de rikere områdene i Hordaland og Rogaland. Kildene er motstridende om han erobret Trøndelag, eller om det ble inngått en allianse. Trolig anerkjente jarlene Harald som overkonge.

Han skal ha vunnet mange slag, men vi kjenner bare til ett. Det skal ifølge Snorre Sturlason og Egils saga også ha vært det mest kjente slaget: slaget i Hafrsfjord, tidfestet til omlag 872. Her vant han over en allianse av småkonger påVestlandet og Sørlandet. Ut fra navnene på motstanderne har det også vært argumentert med at det må ha vært danske soldater med i slaget. En danske var danehøvdingen Tore Haklang. I Grettes saga berettes det hvordan han ble angrepet av Haralds menn og falt på skipet.^[17] Noen mener at han i Hafrsfjord erobret Rogaland, mens andre mente at han forsvarte sitt rike. Han var etterpå ubestridt konge for kystlandet fra Rogaland til Stadt.

Han var ifølge Snorre den første kongen som styrte over hele Norge, men det er ikke i samsvar med andre kilder og dagens oppfatninger. Harald Hårfagre styrte bare deler av det nåværende Norge. Hans opprinnelige maktbase var i Sogn. Med grunnlag i fortellingen i Fagrskinna, kan en også hevde at Harald ikke kontrollerte noe som helst på Østlandet, mens andre mener at han også kan hatt kontrollene over deler av Opplandene. Etter sine erobringer kontrollerte han Vestlandet. Hans alliansepartnere Ragnvald Mørejarl og ladejarlene i Trøndelag kontrollerte det meste av det nordenfjeldske Norge. Viken, Vestfold og kanskje større deler av Østlandet, var under den danske kongens styre.

Han var kjent for å styre med hard hånd. Landnåmet på Island blir i sagaene forklart med Harald Hårfagres «overstyre», eller harde styre.

Siste leveår og død

Da Harald var omlag 80 år gammel lot han sønnen Eirik Blodøks bli overkonge, fordi han selv begynte å bli svak. Han levde ennå tre år, men døde da sottedød (av sykdom).

Harald Hårfagres begravelse er omtalt i Ågrip^[18] som:

Deretter andast han (Harald Hårfagre) i Rogaland og vart hauglagd på Haugar upp frå Hasseløysund.

I Heimskringla^[19] fortelles det:

Kong Harald døde sottedøden på Rogaland og er hauglagt på Haugar ved Karmsund Ved Haugesundet står en kirke, og like ved kirkegården i nordvest er kong Harald Hårfagres haug, men vestenfor kirken ligger gravsteinen til kong Harald, den som lå over graven inne i haugen. Steinen er tretten og en halv fot lang og nesten to alen bred. Midt i haugen var kong Haralds grav; der sto det en stein ved hodet og en ved føttene, og hellen var lagt ovenpå dem, og det var fylt med stein på begge sider under. De steinene som var i haugen, og som det her er fortalt om, står der nå på kirkegården.

Med dette som kilde, har det vært gjettet på at han ble gravlagt der Haraldsstøtten i Haugesund nå er reist, men det er i beste fall svært usikkert.

Etter Are Frodes kronologi døde han i 931 eller 932. Denne kronologien blir ansett som den mest pålitelige en har

Harald IV Magnusson Gille^[1] (1103–1136) var konge av Norge fra 1130 til 1136. Hans samkongedømme med nevøen Magnus Blinde ble innledningen til Borgerkrigstiden.

Harald var gift med den svenske Ingrid Ragnvaldsdatter (datter av kong Ragnvald Knaphövde), og fikk med henne sønnen Inge Krokrygg (født ca. 1135). Hans eldste sønn Øystein Haraldsson (født ca. 1125) skriver seg fra et tidligere forhold til Biadoc^[2], mens den tredje etterfølger-sønnen Sigurd Munn (født ca. 1134) var sønn av den høyættede frillen Tora Guttormsdatter. Den fjerde sønnen som fikk kongsnavn var Magnus, som ble kongekåret i 1142 da Øystein kom til landet. Magnus døde i 1145, 10 år gammel.

I sagaene fremstilles Haralds introduksjon på det norske politiske arena som hans eget initiativ: Han møter lendmannen Hallkjell Huk på Sudrøyene, presenterer seg som kongssønn/kongsbror, og ber om skyss til Norge. Kong Sigurd lot Harald bevise sin farsætt gjennom gudsdom, mot at han sverget ikke å kreve kongedømme i Norge så lenge kong Sigurd og sønnen Magnus levde. I følge tidens skikk som kirken hadde innført kunne man ikke nekte ham å bevise sin herkomst ved jernbyrd. Harald lot seg barbent lede av to biskoper over ni (eller sju) glødende plogjern, og etter tre dager viste han frem bena hele og uskadde. Dermed anerkjente Sigurd irlenderen som sin bror. Moren, som ikke navngis, skal også ha vært med til Norge, og ha båret fram vitnesbyrd. Det er ikke kjent hvilket år Harald kom til Norge, men det må ha vært etter kong Øysteins død i 1123, og i god tid før Sigurds død i 1130 – ettersom Harald hadde rukket å vinne seg faste venner.

Uavhengig av Haralds egen troniver må det antas at tiden og forholdene var forberedt på et alternativt kongsemne. Ikke alle stormennene så fram til å få Sigurds sønn Magnus til konge. Magnus hadde til tross for sin unge alder gjort seg upopulær, og ble beskrevet som «storaktig og grusom».^[3] Som motsetning ble den 12 år eldre Harald ansett som «vennlig og lystig, han ville gjerne holde moro, har var ikke stor på det, gavmild, ... tok gjerne imot råd»^[4], og trolig dyktigere i sin alliansebygging. Da Magnus ble tatt til konge i Viken etter farens død tok det bare kort tid før Harald Gille lot seg kongekåre på Haugating i Tønsberg. Senere samme år ble de kåret til samkonger på Øretinget i Trøndelag.

Freden mellom Magnus og Harald var skjør, og vinteren 1133-34 brøt det nær ved ut strid mellom dem. Sommeren 1134 var det Magnus som begynte krigshandlingene, i et forsøk på å drive Harald ut av landet. Borgerkrigens første slag stod i august 1134 i Fyrileiv i Båhuslen, og ble vunnet av Magnus. Harald kom imidlertid tilbake, støttet av den danske kong Erik Emune, og tok Magnus til fange i Bergen tidlig i 1135. Magnus ble lemlestet, og plassert på Munkholmen (dengang Nidarholm) utenfor Trondheim.

Etter å ha overvunnet Magnus tok Harald for seg biskop Reinald av Stavanger, som han mistenkte for å ha skjult skatter på vegne av Magnus. Reinald ble hengt.

Harald ble deretter utsatt for det samme «familieproblemet» som har selv hadde påført kong Sigurd Jorsalfare: Han blir oppsøkt i Bergen av en angivelig halvbror, Sigurd Slembe, som sa at han var sønn av Magnus Berrføtt og ba om at slektskapet ble anerkjent av Harald. Harald svarte med å anklage Sigurd Slembe for drapet på Torkjell Fostre. Noe senere oppsøkte Sigurd og «noen menn» kongen mens han sov hos frillen Tora Guttormsdatter. Her tok de livet av ham, natten mellom 13. og 14. desember. Ifølge sagaen ble kongen lurt til å røpe hvor han ville være om natten, ved at en av mennene hans tilsynelatende spøkefullt fortalte at han hadde veddet med noen andre om at kongen ville sove hos dronningen den natten. "Det veddemålet taper du," skal kongen ha svart. Sigurd Slembe lyste drapet på seg, og ba om å bli tatt til konge. Han og hans menn ble dømt fredløse og jaget fra Bergen.

Sigurd lot seg etterhvert kåre til konge på ting i Nordhordland, i Sogn og i Fjordane. Den styringsvante kretsen som hadde holdt de politiske tøylene i Harald Gilles dager, aktet ikke å gi slipp på makten.^[5] Haralds sønn med Tora, Sigurd Munn (da 3-4 år gammel) var til oppfostring i Trøndelag, og de ba om at han måtte bli tatt til konge på tinget. Enkedronningen Ingerid giftet seg senere med en av stormennene som støttet Sigurd. Samtidig sørget Ingerid for at hennes egen sønn Inge (da 2 år) ble tatt til konge på Borgartinget. Slik lyktes det dem å samle en allianse som kunne stå imot Sigurd Slembe og Magnus Blinde.

Harald ble beskrevet^[6] som en «høy og grannvokst mann, med lang hals og noe lang i ansiktet, svartøyd, mørkhåret, rask og sprek. Han hadde tungt for å tale norsk, og han fomlet ofte etter ordene».

Hedwig Wittelsbach Duchess of Bavaria, was a 9th-century noble woman of the Holy Roman Empire, and Mother in law of Louis the Pious through his marriage to Judith her daughter.

Early life

She was born circa 780AD at Altdorf, Mittelfranken, Bayern in what was the Frankish Empire (Present Germany). She was daughter of Isanbart Des Franken. She had a sister Adalung des Franken, half brother Hunfrid I de Recia e de Istria, and brother Guelph, Count of Andech.

In her early life she was Abbess of Chelles Abbey, however, left that role to marry.

Family

In 810AD, she married Welf I of Altdorf^{[4][better source needed]} and together they had the following children:

• Judith, Roman Empress and Frankish Queen, died 843;
• Rudolph, died 866;^[5]
• Conrad,^[6] Count of Paris, ancestor of the Welf kings of Burgundy;
• Hemma, Frankish Queen, married to Louis the German, son of Louis the Pious, died 876.
• Mathilda d'Andech von Altdorf

Through her marriage to Welf she is the matriarch of the Dynastic Welf Family^[7] and is an ancestor of the Carolingian dynasty, the Kings of Italy, Russia, Brittan, the Hagenéter rulers of Piedmont and the Bavarian Welfs.

Hedwig died 19 April 843 in Bayern, Frankish Empire (present Germany) and was buried in Bayern Lande.

Hedwige of Saxony (also Hedwig, Hadwig) (c. 910 – May 10, 965) was a member of the Ottonian dynasty and a descendant of Charlemagne. She was married to Hugh the Great. Their son, Hugh Capet was the founder of the Capetian dynasty.

Life

Hedwig was a younger daughter of Henry I the Fowler, and his second wife Matilda of Ringelheim. Her siblings were Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor; Henry I, Duke of Bavaria;Gerberga of Saxony; and Bruno I, Archbishop of Cologne.

After her brother Otto I came to power, an alliance and marriage was arranged with Hugh the Great. Hedwig was Hugh's third wife. They married c.936/8. With Hugh, Hedwig had the following children:

• Hugh Capet, who was crowned King of France in 987.

• Emma (945-968), who married Richard I, Duke of Normandy in 960.

• Otto, Duke of Burgundy (945-965)

• Henry I, Duke of Burgundy (948-1002)

When Hedwig's husband died in 956, her son Hugh Capet was still underage. Although Hugh inherited his father's estates, but did not rule independently.^[1] Along with her brother,Bruno, Hedwig acted as Hugh's regent until he came of age.

Henry the Fowler (German: Heinrich der Finkler or Heinrich der Vogler; Latin: Henricius Auceps) (876 – 2 July 936) was the Duke of Saxony from 912 and the King of Germany from 919 until his death. First of the Ottonian Dynasty of German kings and emperors, he is generally considered to be the founder and first king of the medieval German state, known until then as East Francia. An avid hunter, he obtained the epithet "the Fowler"^[1] because he was allegedly fixing his birding nets when messengers arrived to inform him that he was to be king.

Born in Memleben, in what is now Saxony-Anhalt, Henry was the son of Otto the Illustrious, Duke of Saxony, and his wife Hedwiga, daughter of Henry of Franconia and Ingeltrude and a great-great-granddaughter of Charlemagne, or Charles I. In 906 he married Hatheburg, daughter of the Saxon count Erwin. She had previously been a nun. The marriage was annulled in 909 because her vows as a nun were deemed by the church to remain valid. She had already given birth to Henry's son Thankmar. The annulment placed a question mark over Thankmar's legitimacy. Later that year he married St Matilda of Ringelheim, daughter of Dietrich, Count of Westphalia. Matilda bore him three sons, one called Otto, and two daughters, Hedwig and Gerberga, and founded many religious institutions, including the abbey of Quedlinburg where Henry is buried. She was later canonized.

Family and children

As the first Saxon ruler of Germany, Henry was the founder of the Ottonian dynasty of German rulers. He and his descendants would rule Germany (later the Holy Roman Empire) from 919 until 1024. In relation to the other members of his dynasty, Henry I was the father of Otto I, grandfather of Otto II, great-grandfather of Otto III, and great-grandfather of Henry II. Henry had two wives and at least six children.

• With Hatheburg:

• Thankmar (908 – 938)

• With Matilda of Ringelheim:

• Hedwig (910 – 965) - wife of the West Frankish Duke Hugh the Great, mother of King Hugh Capet of France

• Otto I (912 – 973) - Duke of Saxony, King of Germany, and Holy Roman Emperor

• Gerberga (913 – 984) - wife of (1) Duke Giselbert of Lorraine and (2) King Louis IV of France

• Henry I (919 – 955) - Duke of Bavaria

• Bruno (925 – 965) - Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lorraine

Herbert II (d. 23 Feb 943), Count of Vermandois and Count of Meaux. He was the first to exercise power over the territory that became the province of Champagne.

Life

Herbert was the son of Herbert I of Vermandois.^[1] He was apparently well aware of his descent from Charlemagne.^[2] Herbert inherited the domain of his father and in 907, added to it the Abbey of St. Medard, Soissons. He took the position of Lay abbot entitling him to the income of those estates.^[1] His marriage with a daughter of king Robert I of France brought him the County of Meaux.^[3]

In 922, when Seulf became Archbishop of Rheims, in an effort to appease Herbert II Seulf solemnly promised him he could nominate his successor.^[4] In 923, Count Herbert took the bold step of imprisoning King Charles III, who died still a captive in 929.^[a][3] Then, on the death of Seulf in 925, with the help of King Rudolph, he acquired for his second son Hugh (then five years old) the archbishopric of Rheims.^[5] Herbert took the additional step of sending emissaries to Rome to Pope John X to gain his approval, which that pope gave in 926.^[4] On his election young Hugh was sent to Auxerre to study.^[2]

In 926, on the death of Count Roger of Laon, Herbert demanded this countship for Eudes, his eldest son.^[6] He took the town in defiance of King Rudolph leading to a clash between the two in 927.^[2] Using the threat of releasing King Charles III, who he held captive, Herbert managed to hold the city for four more years.^[2] But after the death of Charles in 929, Rudolph again attacked Laon in 931 successfully defeating Herbert.^[2] The same year the king entered Rheims and defeated archbishop Hugh, the son of Herbert.^[7] Artaud became the new archbishop of Reims.^[7] Herbert II then lost, in three years, Vitry, Laon, Château-Thierry, and Soissons.^[8] The intervention of his ally,Henry the Fowler, allowed him to restore his domains (except Rheims and Laon) in exchange for his submission to King Rudolph.

Later Herbert allied with Hugh the Great and William Longsword, duke of Normandy against King Louis IV, who allocated the County of Laon to Roger II, the son of Roger I, in 941. Herbert and Hugh the Great took back Rheims and captured Artaud.^[9] Hugh, the son of Herbert, was restored as archbishop.^[9] Again the mediation of the German King Otto I in Visé, near Liège, in 942 allowed for the normalization of the situation.

Death and legacy

Herbert II died on 23 February 943 at Saint-Quentin, Aisne (the capital of the county of Vermandois).^[1] His vast estates and territories were divided among his sons.^[10] Vermandois and Amiens went to the two elder sons while Robert and Herbert, the younger sons, were given the valuable holdings scattered throughout Champagne.^[10] On Robert's death his brother's son Herbert III inherited them all. Herbert III's only son Stephen died childless in 1019–20 thus ending the male line of Herbert II.

Family

Herbert married Adele, daughter of Robert I of France.^[11] Together they had the following children:

• Eudes of Vermandois, Count of Amiens and of Vienne, (c. 910–946)^[1]
• Adalbert I, Count of Vermandois (c. 915–987), married Gerberge of Lorraine^[1]
• Adela of Vermandois (910–960), married 934 Count Arnulf I of Flanders^[1]
• Herbert 'the Old' (c. 910–980), Count of Omois, Meaux and Troyes, and abbot of St. Medard, Soissons, married 951 Eadgifu of Wessex daughter of Edward the Elder King of England and widow of Charles III King of France.^[b][1]
• Robert of Vermandois, Count of Meaux and Châlons († 967)^[1]
• Luitgarde of Vermandois (c. 915-20–978), married 940 William I, Duke of Normandy;^[1] married secondly, c. 943–44, Theobald I of Blois^[c][12] Their son was Odo I, Count of Blois.^[10]
• Hugh of Vermandois (920–962), Archbishop of Reims

Himiltrude (c. 742-c.780?) was the mother of Charlemagne's first-born son Pippin the Hunchback.

Life

Little is known about Himiltrude's origins. Paulus Diaconus calls her a "noble girl".^[1] The appearance of her name in the fraternity books of Alemannian monasteries may suggest an affiliation with the Germanic Alemannian or Alsatian nobility,^[2] while other sources make her the daughter of a Burgundian count and a granddaughter of Grimbert I, Count of Paris. It is not possible, however, to extrapolate any political ramifications from Charlemagne's relationship with Himiltrude.^[1]

Himiltrude probably entered into a relationship with Charlemagne during the lifetime of his father, Pepin the Younger.^[1] When Charlemagne acceded to the throne in 768, Himiltrude remained unnamed in official sources – contrary to the example set by Charlemagne's mother, Bertrada of Laon.^[1] Himiltrude bore Charles a son called Pépin. Shortly after Pepin's birth, an alliance was formulated between Charlemagne and the King of the Lombards,Desiderius. To seal the alliance, it was agreed that Charlemagne should marry Desiderius' daughter (called Desiderata by modern scholars).

Himiltrude was dismissed at that time and disappears from historical records. A grave excavated in the monastery of Nivelles was found to contain the corpse of a forty-year old woman, possibly identifiable with Himiltrude. If so, Himiltrude would appear to have died long after 770, although if and when she retired to Nivelles cannot be deduced.^[1]

Her son Pépin, who suffered from a spinal deformity and was called "the Hunchback", was eclipsed by Charlemagne's sons from the later marriage of this to Hildegard. Following an attempted rebellion against his father, he was confined to a monastery.

Marital status

The nature of Himiltrude's relationship to Charlemagne is a matter of dispute. Charlemagne's biographer Einhard calls her a "concubine"^[3] and Paulus Diaconus speaks of Pippin's birth "before legal marriage",^[1] whereas a letter by Pope Stephen III refers to Charlemagne and his brother Carloman as being already married (to Himiltrude and Gerberga), and advises them not to dismiss their wives.^[1]

Historians have interpreted the information in different ways. Some, such as Pierre Riché, follow Einhard in describing Himiltrude as a concubine.^[4] Others, Dieter Hägemann for example, consider Himiltrude a wife in the full sense.^[2] Still others subscribe to the idea that the relationship between the two was "something more than concubinage, less than marriage" and describe it as a Friedelehe, a supposed form of marriage unrecognized by the Church and easily dissolvable. This form of relationship is often seen in a conflict between Christian marriage and more flexible Germanic concepts.

Hugh Capet^[a][b] (c. 941 – 24 October 996), was the first "King of the Franks" of the House of Capet from his election in 987 until his death, He succeeded the last Carolingian king, Louis V.

Descent and inheritance

The son of Hugh the Great, Duke of France, and Hedwige of Saxony, daughter of the German king Henry the Fowler, Hugh was born in 941.^[1] His paternal family, the Robertians, were powerful landowners in the Île-de-France.^[2] His grandfather had been King Robert I.^[2] His grandmother Beatrice was a Carolingian, a daughter of Herbert I of Vermandois.^[1] This makes him the fifth great-grandson of Charlemagne through Pepin of Italy.^[3] King Odo was his grand-uncle and King Rudolph the son-in-law of his grandfather, King Robert I.^[4]

Hugh Capet was born into a well-connected and powerful family with many ties to the reigning nobility of Europe.^[c] But Hugh's father was never king. When Rudolph died in 936, Hugh the Great organised the return of Louis d'Outremer, son of Charles the Simple, from his exile at the court of Athelstan of England.^[5] Hugh the Great's motives are unknown, but it is presumed that he acted to forestall Rudolph's brother, Hugh the Black, Duke of Burgundy, from attempting to take the French throne, or to prevent it from falling into the hands of Herbert II of Vermandois or Richard the Fearless, Duke of Normandy.^[6]

In 956, Hugh inherited his father's estates and became one of the most powerful nobles in the much-reduced kingdom of West Francia.^[7] As he was not yet an adult, his mother acted as his guardian,^[8]and young Hugh's neighbours took advantage. Theobald I of Blois, a former vassal of Hugh's father, took the counties of Chartres and Châteaudun. Further south, on the border of the kingdom, Fulk II of Anjou, another former client of Hugh the Great, carved out a principality at Hugh's expense and that of the Bretons.^[9]

A denier of Hugh Capet when he was Duke of France, calling him "dukeby the grace of God" (Dux Dei Gratia). Minted at Paris (Parisi Civita)

The realm in which Hugh grew up, and of which he would one day be king, bore no resemblance to modern France. Hugh's predecessors did not call themselves kings of France, and that title was not used by his successors until the time of his descendant, Philip II. Kings ruled as rex Francorum ("King of the Franks") and the lands they ruled comprised only a small part of the former Carolingian Empire. The eastern Frankish lands, the Holy Roman Empire, were ruled by the Ottonian dynasty, represented by Hugh's first cousin Otto II and then by Otto's son,Otto III. The lands south of the river Loire had largely ceased to be part of the West Francia kingdom in the years after Charles the Simple was deposed in 922. Both the Duchy of Normandy and the Duchy of Burgundy were largely independent, and Brittany entirely so—although from 956 Burgundy was ruled by Hugh's brothers Otto and Henry.

Election and extent of power

From 977 to 986, Hugh Capet allied himself with the Holy Roman Emperor Otto II and with Archbishop Adalberon of Reims to dominate the Carolingian king, Lothair. By 986, he was king in all but name. After Lothair's son Louis died in May 987, Adalberon and Gerbert of Aurillac convened an assembly of nobles to elect Hugh Capet as their king. In front of an electoral assembly atSenlis, Adalberon gave a stirring oration and pleaded to the nobles:

Crown the Duke. He is most illustrious by his exploits, his nobility, his forces. The throne is not acquired by hereditary right; no one should be raised to it unless distinguished not only for nobility of birth, but for the goodness of his soul.^[11]

He was elected and crowned rex Francorum at Noyon in Picardy on 3 July 987, by the prelate of Reims, the first of the Capetian house. Immediately after his coronation, Hugh began to push for the coronation of his son Robert. Hugh's own claimed reason was that he was planning an expedition against the Moorish armies harassing Borrel II of Barcelona, an invasion which never occurred, and that the stability of the country necessitated two kings should he die while on expedition.^[12] Ralph Glaber, however, attributes Hugh's request to his old age and inability to control the nobility.^[13] Modern scholarship has largely imputed to Hugh the motive of establishing a dynasty against the pretension of electoral power on the part of the aristocracy, but this is not the typical view of contemporaries and even some modern scholars have been less sceptical of Hugh's "plan" to campaign in Spain.^[13] Robert was eventually crowned on 25 December that same year.

Denier of Hugh Capet for Beauvais

Hugh Capet possessed minor properties near Chartres and Angers. Between Paris and Orléans he possessed towns and estates amounting to approximately 400 square miles (1,000 km²). His authority ended there, and if he dared travel outside his small area, he risked being captured and held for ransom, though his life would be largely safe.^{[citation needed]} Indeed, there was a plot in 993, masterminded by Adalberon, Bishop of Laon and Odo I of Blois, to deliver Hugh Capet into the custody of Otto III. The plot failed, but the fact that no one was punished illustrates how tenuous his hold on power was. Beyond his power base, in the rest of France, there were still as many codes of law as there were fiefdoms. The "country" operated with 150 different forms of currency and at least a dozen languages.^{[citation needed]} Uniting all this into one cohesive unit was a formidable task and a constant struggle between those who wore the crown of France and its feudal lords. Therefore, Hugh Capet's reign was marked by numerous power struggles with the vassals on the borders of the Seine and the Loire.

While Hugh Capet's military power was limited and he had to seek military aid from Richard I of Normandy, his unanimous election as king gave him great moral authority and influence.Adémar de Chabannes records, probably apocryphally, that during an argument with the Count of Auvergne, Hugh demanded of him: "Who made you count?" The count riposted: "Who made you king?"

Dispute with the papacy

Hugh made Arnulf Archbishop of Reims in 988, even though Arnulf was the nephew of his bitter rival, Charles of Lorraine. Charles thereupon succeeded in capturing Reims and took the archbishop prisoner. Hugh, however, considered Arnulf a turncoat and demanded his deposition by Pope John XV. The turn of events outran the messages, when Hugh captured both Charles and Arnulf and convoked a synod at Reims in June 991 which obediently deposed Arnulf and chose as his successor Gerbert of Aurillac. These proceedings were repudiated by Rome, although a second synod had ratified the decrees issued at Reims. John XV summoned the French bishops to hold an independent synod outside the King's realm, at Aachen, to reconsider the case. When they refused, he called them to Rome, but they protested that the unsettled conditions en route and in Rome made that impossible. The Pope then sent a legate with instructions to call a council of French and German bishops at Mousson, where only the German bishops appeared, the French being stopped on the way by Hugh and Robert.

Through the exertions of the legate, the deposition of Arnulf was finally pronounced illegal. After Hugh's death, Arnulf was released from his imprisonment and soon restored to all his dignities.

Legacy

Hugh Capet died on 24 October 996 in Paris and was interred in the Saint Denis Basilica. His son Robert continued to reign.

Most historians regard the beginnings of modern France with the coronation of Hugh Capet. This is because, as Count of Paris, he made the city his power centre. The monarch began a long process of exerting control of the rest of the country from there.

He is regarded as the founder of the Capetian dynasty. The direct Capetians, or the House of Capet, ruled France from 987 to 1328; thereafter, the Kingdom was ruled by cadet branches of the dynasty. All French kings through Louis Philippe, and all royals since then, have belonged to the dynasty. Furthermore, cadet branches of the House continue to reign in Spain and Luxembourg.

All monarchs of the Kingdom of France from Hugh Capet to Philip II of France were titled King of the Franks. Philip II of France was the first to use the title of King of France. Many people are mistaken with this minor error in writing or doing genealogy.

Marriage and issue

Hugh Capet married Adelaide, daughter of William Towhead, Count of Poitou. Their children are as follows:

• Gisela, or Gisele, who married Hugh I, Count of Ponthieu

• Hedwig, or Hathui, who married Reginar IV, Count of Hainaut

• Robert II, who became king after the death of his father

A number of other daughters are less reliably attested.

Inga fra Varteig (født omkring 1185, død 1234) var elskerinne eller frille til kong Håkon Sverresson av Norge, fødte sønnen Håkon Håkonsson utenfor ekteskap, og bar senere jernbyrd for å bevise sannheten om sønnens kongsarv. Hun har spilt en betydelig rolle i Norges historie. Hun spiller en sentral rolle i Henrik Ibsens skuespill Kongsemnerne, som introduserte navnet «Inga fra Varteig» som hun har blitt kalt siden.

Bakgrunn

Hun omtales i historisk litteratur som Inga fra Varteig uten at det er kildebelegg for at det var der hun kom fra. Sagaen sier bare at Håkon Sverreson kom i kontakt med henne i Borg (dagens Sarpsborg). Sagaen sier også uttrykkelig at hun hadde slekt fra Varteig i nærheten av Sarpsborg. Trolig hørte hun til en bondeslekt herfra. Det lille vi vet om Inga er fra Håkon Håkonssons saga, en kongesaga som er blitt skrevet i nær kontakt med, og under kontroll av, Håkons sønn Magnus Lagabøter. Det er påfallende at svært lite sies om Ingas familie, altså Håkons morsfamilie. En hypotese går ut på at hun var av baglerslekt, og at dette bevisst er underkommunisert i sagaen.

Etter sigende var Inga meget vakker. Under et opphold hos sin frende Audun, en av de gjeveste mennene i Borg (Sarpsborg), ble hun kjent med Håkon Sverresson. Bekjentskapet ble intimt og hun ble senere gravid med et barn som ble konge, Håkon Håkonsson. Ifølge Håkon Håkonssons saga bodde "Inga i kong Håkons hus, kongen delte seng med henne; Håkon Galen og flere av kongens betrodde menn visste om det". Kanskje så hun sin framtidige elsker første gang da han skulle hylles på Borgartinget i 1202.

Arvestriden etter kong Håkon Sverresson

Håkon Sverresson regjerte i knappe to år. Han døde brått nyttårsdagen i 1204, bare noen måneder før sønnen ble født, og det ble påstått at han ble forgiftet. Ryktene sa at det var hans stemor, enkedronning Margrete, som hadde forgiftet ham.

Med kongens død ble Norge utstabilt igjen, og landet ble delt mellom profesjonelle krigere med baglere på den ene siden og birkebeinere på den andre. Folk flest, bønder og lendmenn, var trette av krig og uår.

Birkebeinerne fremmet barnekongen Guttorm Sigurdsson, en sønnesønn av kong Sverre, men denne døde samme år. Baglerne fremmet Filippus Simonsson, den dattersønn av Harald Gilles dronning og søstersønn av den krigerske Oslo-bispen Nikolas Arneson. Det var ytterst farlig å bære på en potensiell tronarving midt i sentrum av baglerriket og Inga var i en vanskelig situasjon. Mens hun var gravid ble hun sveket av sine frender. Hun måtte vandre hjemmefra og ble mottatt av Erland på Huseby i Eidsberg. Hun ble innkvartert hos en Trond prest på Folkenborg i Eidsberg, et par kilometer nord for Huseby, da hun i 1204 fødte Håkon. Et barn som, for enkelte grupper, spesielt baglerne ledet av biskop Nikolas Arneson, var en trussel som måtte likvideres. Biskop Nikolas hadde selv kongskrav til tronen ved å være sønn av Harald Gilles enke Ingerid og var en innbitt motstander av kong Sverre og hans krets.

På flukt vinterstid

Juleaften i 1205 dro Inga med lille Håkon til Hamar, men av frykt for baglerne som lette etter barnet, reiste hun straks videre til Lillehammer og gjemte seg der i julen. I januar 1206 dro en flokk birkebeinere på ski over fjellet fra Lillehammer til Østerdalen, forfulgt av baglerne. De hadde med seg den halvannet år gammel gutten, Håkon. Moren Inga var også med i følget. Birkebeinerflokken var på vei nordover Opplandene for å bringe sønnen til kongsgården i Nidaros, hvor birkebeinerne sto sterkt og gutten ville være trygg.

Fra Lillehammer dro de østover fjellet; de mente det var risikabelt å fare den vanlige veien nordover Gudbrandsdalen. Vær og føre var ikke på birkebeinernes side. Da uværet raste som verst, ble det bestemt at de to beste skiløperne, Torstein Skjevla og Skjervald Skrukka, skulle dra i forveien og bringe gutten i sikkerhet.

De fant ly for gutten i ei utløe, hvor de smeltet snø for å gi ham å drikke. Sagaen gir ingen grunn til å tro at Inga var med på denne turen, selv om den ikke spesifikt nevner at hun ikke var det. De to birkebeinerne kjempet seg frem gjennom uværet, uten tanke på å snu eller gi opp, for å redde det barnet som de håpet skulle bli Norges konge. «På denne ferden sleit de mye vondt av styggevær og frost og snø.»

Bak sagaens knappe beretning ligger en dramatisk og historisk dåd som står sentralt i Norgeshistorien og fortsatt minnes i kunst og årlige ski- og sykkelløp.

Judith of Flanders (or Judith of France) (c. 843 – c. 870)^[1] was the eldest daughter of the West Frankish King and later Holy Roman Emperor Charles the Bald and his wife Ermentrude of Orléans. Through her marriages to two Kings of Wessex, Æthelwulf and Æthelbald, she was twice a queen. Her first two marriages were childless, but through her third marriage toBaldwin, she became the first Countess of Flanders and an ancestress of later Counts of Flanders. One of her sons by Baldwin married Ælfthryth, a daughter of Æthelbald's brother,Alfred the Great. She was also an ancestress of Matilda of Flanders, the consort of William the Conqueror, and thus of later monarchs of England.

Queen of Wessex

In 855 King Æthelwulf of Wessex made a pilgrimage to Rome, and on his way back in 856 he stayed at the court of the West Frankish king, Charles the Bald. In July Æthelwulf became engaged to Charles's daughter, Judith, who was no more than fourteen, while Æthelwulf was about fifty years old, and on 1 October 856 they were married at Verberie in northern France. The marriage was a diplomatic alliance. Both men were suffering from Viking attacks, and for Æthelwulf the marriage had the advantage of associating him with Carolingian prestige. In Wessex it was not customary for kings' wives to be queens, but Charles insisted that his daughter be crowned queen.^[2][3]

The marriage provoked a rebellion by Æthelwulf's eldest surviving son, Æthelbald, probably because he feared displacement by a higher born half brother. However father and son negotiated a compromise under which Æthelwulf received the eastern districts of the kingdom and Æthelbald the western. It is not known whether this meant that Æthelwulf took Kent and Æthelbald Wessex, or whether Wessex itself was divided.^[2]

Judith had no children by Æthelwulf, who died on 13 January 858. He was succeeded by Æthelbald, who married Judith, his step-mother, probably to enhance his status because she was the daughter of the West Frankish king.^[2] The marriage was condemned by Asser in his Life of Alfred the Great:

Once King Æthelwulf was dead, Æthelbald, his son, against God's prohibition and Christian dignity, and also contrary to the practice of all pagans, took over his father's marriage-bed and married Judith, daughter of Charles, king of the Franks, incurring great disgrace from all who heard of it.^[4]

Judith was still childless when Æthelbald died in 860 after a reign of two and a half years.^[

Elopement with Baldwin of Flanders

Following Æthelbald's death, Judith sold her properties in Wessex and returned to France. According to the Chronicle of St. Bertin, her father sent her to the Monastery at Senlis, where she would remain "under his protection and royal episcopal guardianship, with all the honour due to a queen, until such time as, if she could not remain chaste, she might marry in the way the apostle said, that is suitably and legally."^[5] Presumably, Charles may have intended to arrange another marriage for his daughter. However, around Christmas 861, Judith eloped withBaldwin, later Count of Flanders. The two were likely married at the monastery of Senlis at this time. The record of the incident in the Annals depicts Judith not as the passive victim of bride theft but as an active agent, eloping at the instigation of Baldwin and apparently with her brother Louis the Stammerer's consent.^[6]

Unsurprisingly, Judith's father was furious and ordered his bishops to excommunicate the couple. They later fled to the court of Judith's cousin Lothair II of Lotharingia for protection, before going to Pope Nicholas I to plead their case. The Pope took diplomatic action and asked Judith's father to accept the union as legally binding and welcome the young couple into his circle – which ultimately he did. The couple then returned to France and were officially married at Auxerre in 863.

Baldwin was given the land directly south of the Scheldt, i.e.: the Country of Flanders (albeit an area of smaller size than the county which existed in the High Middle Ages) to ward off Viking attacks. Although it is disputed among historians as to whether King Charles did this in the hope that Baldwin would be killed in the ensuing battles with the Vikings, Baldwin managed the situation remarkably well. Baldwin succeeded in quelling the Viking threat, expanded both his army and his territory quickly, and became a faithful supporter of King Charles. The March of Baldwin came to be known as the County of Flanders and would come to be one of the most powerful principalities of France. Judith was still living in 870

Children

By her third husband, Baldwin I of Flanders, Judith's children included:

• Charles (born after 863 – died young) – ostensibly named for Judith's father, Charles the Bald
• Baldwin II – (c. 864/866 – 918). Succeeded his father as Count of Flanders. Married Ælfthryth, daughter of Alfred the Great
• Raoul (Rodulf) – (c. 869 – 896). Became Count of Cambrai around 888, and was killed by Herbert I of Vermandois in 896

Karl den store (tysk Karl der Große, latin Carolus Magnus, fransk Charlemagne (brukes på mange andre språk, bl.a. engelsk, av og til på norsk), italiensk Carlomagno) (født 2. april742, død 28. januar 814) var konge av frankerne fra år 771, konge av Lombardia fra 774, og tysk-romersk keiser fra 800. Han var eldste sønn av kong Pippin den yngre av frankerne. Han er det mest kjente medlemmet av dynastiet karolingerne. Karl ble kronet til keiser av Paven i Roma, 1. juledag år 800 e. Kr. Han bodde i Aachen og er begravet i katedralen her.Karlsprisen er oppkalt etter ham.

Fødselsdato og sted

Karl den stores fødselsdag er antatt å være 1. april 742. Men flere faktorer har ført til revurdering av denne tradisjonelle datoen. For det første ble 742 utregnet av hans alder da han døde, mer enn attestert med primærkilder. For det andre dateres hans fødsel i 742 før foreldrenes ekteskap i 749, men der er ingen indikasjoner på at Karl den store ble født utenfor ekteskapet og han arvet sine foreldre. En annen dato er gitt i Annales Petariensis, 1. april 747. Det året var 1. april i påsken. Fødselen av en keiser i påsken er et sammenfall som burde føre til kommentarer, men der er ingen slike kommentarer dokumentert i 747, som har fått noen til å mistenke at påskefødselen var en from fiksjon som skulle ære keiseren. For tiden er det umulig å være sikker på datoen da Karl den store ble født. Den neste gjetningen inkluderer 1. april 747, etter 15. april 747 eller 1. april 748, antagelig i Herstal ellerJupille, hvor hans far ble født, begge nær Liége hvor en viktig del av det karolingske og merovingiske dynastiet bodde. Men andre byer er også nevnt: Prüm, Düren eller Aachen.

Liv

Karl var den eldste sønnen til Pippin den yngre og hans kone Bertrada av Laon.

Da Pippin døde ble kongedømmet delt mellom Karl og hans bror Karloman. Karl tok de ytre delene av kongedømmet som grenset til sjøen, hovedsakelig Neustria, Aquitania og de nordlige delene av Austrasia, mens Karloman fikk de indre delene som grenset til Italia.

Karloman døde 5. desember 771 og etterlot Karl som leder av et forent frankisk kongedømme. Kort tid etterpå marsjerte han mot lombardene og la kongedømmet Italia permanent under den frankiske tronen.

Karl var engasjert i nesten konstant krigføring gjennom hele sitt styre med sitt legendariske sverd Joyeuse i hånden. Etter tretti år med krig og atten slag, sakserkrigene, erobret hanSachsen, et mål som hadde vært den uoppnåelige drømmen til Augustus. Han fortsatte med å konvertere de erobrede til katolsk kristendom, med makt hvor det var nødvendig. I 782, ved Verden i nedre Sachsen, skal han ha beordret halshoggingen av 4500 saksere på en dag (den blodige rettssaken i Verden). Sakserne hadde gjort feilen med å gjøre opprør mot det frankiske styret og ble tatt i å praktisere hedenskap etter at de hadde gått med på å bli kristne. Moderne forskere har dratt disse beskyldningene i tvil, ettersom det ikke er funnet noen arkeologiske bevis for en slik massakre og at de opprinnelige kildene kan ha skrevet «halshogging» ved en feil istedet for «sendt i eksil». Karl forsøkte også å gjenerobreSpania, men klarte aldri helt å nå dette målet. Det var under en av hans mislykkete invasjoner i det nordlige Spania at lederen for hans baktropp, grev Roland, ble drept, noe som inspirerte til skapelsen av Rolandskvadet.

 

Den frankiske kong Karl var en trofast kristen som fastholdt et nært forhold med paven i hele sitt liv. I 772, da Adrian I ble truet av invasjon, skyndte kongen seg til Roma for å gi assistanse. Her ber paven om hjelp i et møte nær Roma.

I 797 (eller 801?) gav kalifen av Bagdad, Harun al-Rashid, Karl en asiatisk elefant kalt Abul-Abbas og en mekanisk klokke. I 799 gjorde folk i Roma opprør mot pave Leo III. De kastet ham i fengsel, men han ble befridd og flyktet til Frankerriket. Der lovet Karl å hjelpe ham, og Leo ble gjeninnsatt i pavestolen.^[1]

Under julemessen 1. juledag i Roma i år 800 kronet pave Leo III Karl Imperator Romanorum (romernes keiser). Dette ble Karls siste besøk i Roma, da han hadde ønsket selv å sette kronen på sitt hode, og mislikte at paven kom ham i forkjøpet. Går man inn hovedportalen i Peterskirken, støter man noen få meter oppe i midtskipet på en stor, rød porfyrsteinnedsenket i gulvet der Karl stod da Leo overrasket ham.^[2] Som keiser ble han hyllet av folk, og de ønsket ham også framgang som «den av Gud kronede store og fredsbringende keiser av Roma».

Selv om dette, ifølge kildene, skjedde mot hans intensjoner, ble Karl fornyeren av det vestlige riket som forsvant i det 5. århundre. For å unngå friksjoner med den østlige keiseren, kalte Karl seg senere Imperator Romanum gubernans Imperium (keiser som styrer Romerriket) istedet for Imperator Romanum, som ble forbeholdt de østlige keiserne.

Karl fulgte opp sin fars reformer og fjernet pengesystemet basert på gull sou. Både han og kong Offa av Mercia tok opp systemet innført av Pippin. Han satte opp en ny standard, livre(pund), både som mynt og vektenhet, som var verdt 20 sous (som solidus og senere skilling) eller 240 denierer (som denarius og til slutt penny). I denne perioden var livre og sou tellende enheter, bare denier var rikets mynt.

Karl innførte systemet i store deler av det europeiske kontinentet, og Offas standard ble frivillig adoptert av store deler av England.

 

Autografen til Karl den store

Karl organiserte imperiet sitt i 350 grevskap, hvert ledet av en oppnevnt greve. Grevene tjente som dommere, administratorer og de opprettholdtcapitularier. For å opprettholde lojalitet, satte han opp et system av missi dominici, som betyr «Herrens utsendinger». I dette systemet ville en representant fra kirken og en representant for keiseren lede de forskjellige grevskapene og hvert år rapportere tilbake til Karl om deres status.

 

Europa ved Karl den stores død.

Da Karl døde i 814 ble han gravlagt i sin egen katedral i Aachen. Han ble etterfulgt av sin eneste overlevende sønn, Ludvig den fromme. Etter ham ble styret av imperiet delt mellom hans tre overlevende sønner ifølge frankisk tradisjon. Disse tre kongedømmene ble grunnlaget for det senereFrankrike og Det hellige romerske rike av den tyske nasjon.

Etter Karls død ble de kontinentale myntene degradert og mesteparten av Europa gikk over til å bruke engelsk mynt til rundt 1100.

Det er vanskelig å forstå Karls holdning overfor sine døtre. Ingen av dem fikk et sakramentalt ekteskap. Dette kan ha vært et forsøk på å kontrollere antallet potensielle allianser. Etter hans død gikk de overlevende døtrene i kloster - mer eller mindre frivillig. Minst en av dem, Bertha av Karolingen, hadde et anerkjent forhold, om ikke ekteskap, med Angilbert, et medlem av Karls hoffsirkel.

Karls morsmål var den gammelhøytyske dialekten kalt frankisk. Han snakket også vulgærlatin og kunne brokker av gresk.

Ekteskap og barn

Karl den store hadde en lang rekke barn, både i og utenfor ekteskap. Hans livsførsel avvek i så måte i betydelig fra tidens kristelige etikk.^{[note 1]} I tillegg til at han inngikk minst én såkaltFriedelehe, en samlivsordning som ikke var så juridisk bindende for noen av partene som tradisjonelt ekteskap, hadde han er rekke sidekoner, som inntok en stilling mellom fullverdig ektefrue og konkubine.

Ekteskap

• Himiltrud (sannsynligvis en såkalt Friedelehe rundt 768)
• 769 ektet han en datter til langobarderkongen Desiderius, som han frasa seg i 770, senest i begynnelsen av 771. Hun blir ofte omtalt som Desiderata, mer sannsynlig er at hun het Gerperga
• Før 30. april 771 giftet han seg med Hildegard (de gente Suaborum, f. 758, † 30. April 783) datter av grev Gerold og Imma, en datter av den alemanniske dux Hnabi
• Rundt oktober 783 giftet han seg med Fastrada († 10. august 794 i Frankfurt am Main), datter av (den antageligvis thüringske-mainfrankerske) greven Radulf
• I 794 eller høsten 796 ektet han alemanniske Luitgard († 4. juni 800)

Disse sidekoner er kjent:

• Madelgard
• Gerswind
• Regina (800)
• Adelind (806)

Etterkommere

• fra ekteskapet med Himiltrud:

  • Pippin den pukkelryggede (f. 770, † 811)

 

Karl den store fremstilt i en kronikk av Ekkehard av Aura rundt 1112/14, Cambridge Corpus Christi, Ms 373, fol. 24r

• fra ekteskapet med Hildegard:

  • Karl den yngre (f. 772/773, † 811) konge av Neustria i 788
  • Adalhaid (f. september 773/juni 774, † juli/august 774 i sørlige Gallia)
  • Rotrud (f. antageligvis 775, † 6. juni 810)
  • Karlmann (f. 777, † 8. juli 810), konge av Italia som Pippin
  • Ludvig den fromme (f. 778, † 840)
  • Lothar (f. juni/august 778 i Chasseneuil ved Poitiers, † 779)
  • Bertha (f. 779/780, † efter 14. januar 828), utvist fra hoffet 814
  • Gisela (f. 781 før mai, † efter 800)
  • Hildegard (f. 782 efter den 8. juni, † mellom 1. og 8. juni 783)

• fra ekteskapet med Fastrada:

  • Theodrada (f. sannsynligvis 785, † 9. januar 844/853)
  • Hiltrud (f. sannsynligvis 787, † efter 800)

• med en ukjent kvinne:

  • Hruodhaid (f. sannsynligvis 787, † efter 800)

• fra forholdet til Madelgard:

  • Ruothild († 24. mars 852)

• fra forholdet til Gerswind:

  • Adalthrud

• fra forholdet til Regina:

  • Drogo (f. 17. juni 801, † 8. desember 855), biskop av Metz 823 erkebiskop og erkekapellan i 834
  • Hugo (f. 802/806, † 14. juni 844) Ludvig den frommes erkekansler fra 834–840

• fra forholdet til Adelind:

  • Theoderich (f. 807, † efter 818)

Lothair II (835 – August 8, 869) was the king of Lotharingia from 855 until his death. He was the second son of Emperor Lothair I and Ermengarde of Tours. He was married toTeutberga (died 875), daughter of Boso the Elder.

Louis II, sometimes called the Younger^[1] (825 – 12 August 875), was the King of Italy and Roman Emperor from 844, co-ruling with his father Lothair I until 855, after which he ruled alone. Louis's usual title was imperator augustus ("august emperor"), but he used imperator Romanorum after his conquest of Bari in 871, which led to poor relations with Byzantium. He was called imperator Italiae ("emperor of Italy") in West Francia while the Byzantines called him Basileus Phrangias ("Emperor of the Franks"). The chronicler Andreas Bergomatis, who is the main source for Louis's activities in southern Italy, notes that "after his death a great tribulation came to Italy

Louis was the eldest son of the Emperor Lothair I and Ermengarde of Tours. He was designated King of Italy in 839 and took up his residence in that country and was crowned king atRome by Pope Sergius II on 15 June 844. He at once claimed the rights of an emperor in the city, which claim was decisively rejected; but in 850 he was crowned joint emperor at Rome byPope Leo IV, and soon afterwards, in 851, married Engelberga and undertook the independent government of Italy. He marched into the south of Italy in the year of his imperial coronation and compelled the rival dukes of Benevento, Radelchis I and Siconulf, to make peace. His mediation split the Lombard duchy and gave Radelchis his share with Benevento as his capital and gave Salerno as a principality independent to Siconulf. Radelchis, now pacified, had no need of his Saracen mercenaries and happily betrayed them to the emperor. Louis fell on them and they were massacred. He then quashed some accusations against Pope Leo and held a Diet at Pavia. He confirmed the usurping regent Peter as prince of Salerno in December 853, displacing the dynasty he had installed there three years earlier. On the death of his father in September 855, he became sole emperor.

The division of Lothair's dominions, by which he obtained no territory outside Italy, aroused his discontent, and in 857 he allied himself with Louis the German against his own brotherLothair, King of Lotharingia, and King Charles the Bald. But after Louis had secured the election of Pope Nicholas I in 858, he became reconciled with his brother, and received some lands south of the Jura mountains in return for assistance given to Lothair in his efforts to obtain a divorce from his wife, Teutberga.

In 863, on the death of his brother Charles, Louis received the kingdom of Provence, and in 864 came into collision with Pope Nicholas I over his brother's divorce. The archbishops, who had been deposed by Nicholas for proclaiming this marriage invalid, obtained the support of the emperor, who reached Rome with an army in February 864; but, having been seized with fever, he made peace with the pope and left the city.

In his efforts to restore order in Italy, Louis met with considerable success both against Italy's turbulent princes and against the Saracens who were ravaging southern Italy. In 866, after issuing a call for assistance to fight the Saracens,^[3] he routed these invaders, but could not follow up his successes owing to the lack of a fleet. So in 869 he made alliance with the eastern emperor, Basil I, who sent him ships to assist in the capture of Bari, capital of a local Islamic emirate, which succumbed in 871.^[4]

Louis' gravestone in Milan.

Meanwhile his brother Lothair had died in 869, and owing to his detention in southern Italy, Louis failed to prevent the partition of Lotharingia between Louis the German and Charles the Bald. Some jealousy between Louis and Basil followed the victory at Bari, and in reply to an insult from the eastern emperor Louis attempted to justify his right to the title "emperor of the Romans."

He had withdrawn into Benevento to prepare for a further campaign when he was treacherously attacked in his palace, robbed and imprisoned by Adelchis, prince of Benevento, in August 871. The landing of fresh bands of Saracens compelled Adelchis to release his prisoner a month later, and Louis was forced to swear he would take no revenge for this injury, nor ever enter Benevento with an army. Returning to Rome, he was released from his oath, and was crowned a second time as emperor by Pope Adrian II on May 18, 872.

Then Louis won further successes against the Saracens, who were driven from Capua, but the emperor's attempts to punish Adeichis were not very successful. Returning to northern Italy, he died, near Ghedi, in what is now the province of Brescia, on August 12, 875, and was buried in the church of Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio at Milan, having named as his successor in Italy his cousin Carloman, son of Louis the German.

Family

Louis married on October 5, 851, Engelberga, daughter of Adelchis I of Spoleto. They had only one daughter:

• Ermengard of Italy, who married Boso of Provence and had issue with him.

Magnus Berrføtt (eller Magnus III Olavsson, født 1073, falt i strid 1103) var Norges konge fra 1093 til 1103. Han stod med varierende hell for en aggressiv og ekspansiv norsk utenrikspolitikk, og sørget blant annet for at en del av de skotske øyene med norsk bosetning, Orknøyene, Hebridene og Man ble enten lagt inn under eller bundet tettere til Norgesveldet.

Bakgrunn

Olav Kyrre, den fredelige kongen, og sannsynligvis den første norske kongen som kunne lese og skrive, døde fredsommelig av sykdom 22. september 1093 på gården Haukbø (nå Håkeby) i Tanum (Båhuslen) etter 26 år langt styre, men likevel bare i midten av 40-årene. Han ble ført til Nidaros og begravd i Kristkirken. Kong Olav var strategisk gift med Ingrid, datter av kong Svein Estridsson av Danmark, men ekteskapet var barnløst. Derimot fikk han sin eneste sønn Magnus med sin frille, Tora Jonsdatter (ca. 1045–ca 1070), og gutten ble satt ut til fostring som skikken var.

Beskrivelse

Magnus tilnavn Berrføtt eller Barfot, fra berfættr eller berleggr, er noe uklart. Snorre Sturlason mener at det kom av at kongen og mange av mennene hans i Vesterlandene hadde tatt opp skikken og klesdrakter derfra med å gå «med bare legger på gata og hadde korte trøyer og kapper». Noen forskere mener at denne norrøne referansen er den første historiske kilden til den senere skotske kilten. En annen forklaring gitt er at han foretrakk å ri barfot, slik irene gjorde, uten sko.

Han er i moderne tid blitt beskrevet som den siste vikingen av de norske kongene. Samtiden ga ham et annet tilnavn som er tilsvarende klart, Styrjaldar-Magnus, med andre ord Krigs-Magnus. Selve døpenavnet Magnus betyr stor og kommer fra den frankiske keiseren Karl den stores latinske navn Carolus Magnus.

Magnus Olavsson tok lite etter faren. Derimot synes han mer lik bestefaren, Harald Hardråde. Snorre Sturlason synes ikke å ha fått et klart bilde av kongen i Magnus Berrføtts saga. At han var mer stridslysten enn faren er åpenbart. Snorre bruker flere episoder som viser at kongen var sta og lite villig til å inngå kompromisser. Snorre gir hentydninger på at han var gretten av natur og lite talefør. Av utseende var han lettgjenkjennelig, stor, kraftig og med skulderlangt, silkegult hår. Han var høyere enn andre menn, slår Snorre fast, men da høyden hans merkes på Mariakirken i Nidaros er han mindre enn både Harald Hardråde og Olav Haraldsson. Muligens er høyden symbolsk ment fra Snorres side i sin vurdering av de tre kongene.

Ved det nordiske fredsmøtet i 1101 ved Konghelle i norske Båhuslen, nå Kungälv i Sverige ble de tre nordiske kongene priset for sine dyder; Inge Stenkilsson den eldre, svenskekongen var størst, sterkest og mest høvdingelik mens Erik Eiegod, danskekongen, var absolutt vakrest. De superlativer som ble avsatt for norskekongen var at han så mest djerv og mest rask ut! Skjønt de var egentlig alle vakre, store og gjæve menn som talte godt for seg, skynder Snorre seg å legge til.

Kongevåpenet

Magnus Berrføtt var ifølge Snorre den første norske kongen som brukte løvevåpen. Han skriver at Magnus brukte en rød silkeskjorte med en løve innsydd foran og bak i gul silke, og han bar et tilsvarende rødt skjold, «og på det var det innlagt en løve i gull (gulli leo)». Men historikeren Gustav Storm konkluderte i 1894 med at Snorre bare beskriver kongevåpenet på Snorres egen tid dvs. ca. 1220. Eldre håndskrifter omtaler ikke at Magnus Berrføtt brukte løven.

Norges Konge

Magnus Berrføtt ble tatt til Norges konge i Viken da Olav Kyrre var bilagt, men i Opplandene satt den aldrende stormannen Tore på Steig i Gudbrandsdalen som ble kallt Steigar-Tore. Han hadde sønnen til Magnus Haraldsson, bror til Olav Kyrre, til fostring. Håkon Torefostre ble han kallt, da en ung mann på knapt 25 år. Tore fikk Håkon erklært som konge i Opplandene. Deretter dro de til Trøndelag og på Øretinget krevde de kongsnavn og delt rike, slik som Harald Hardråde og Magnus Olavsson en stund hadde.

Trønderbøndene var ikke lystne på enda en konge, men på Tores råd ga Håkon det ene valgløftet etter det andre: han ville fjerne landøreavgiften og andre retterbøter, og når han i tillegg også ville frata dem plikten med å gi kongen julegaver gikk trønderne med på å gi ham kongsnavn.

Lokalt opprør

Om høsten kom Magnus Berrføtt til Trøndelag med syv langskip, la til ved kongsgården i Nidelven og var ikke blid. Trønderne hadde tatt en slektning av ham som medkonge og tillegg fratatt ham rettigheter og inntekter som han mente han hadde krav på. Kong Magnus nektet kategorisk å godkjenne ordningen eller opprørskongen. Tore fikk høre at kong Magnus var i Nidaros og fikk fraktet Håkon dit, men de følte seg truet av kongens nærvær og hær og reiste hastig av sted igjen. Kort tid etter var Håkon på rypejakt på Dovrefjellet, men ble syk på fjellet og døde.

Håkon Toresfostre fikk ingen egen saga av Snorre, og representerte kun et lokalt, uforløst opprør mot den rettmessige kongen, Magnus Berrføtt. Fosterfaren Tore og en alliert danske ved navn Svein Haraldsson hadde ingen tro på at de kunne komme til forlik og vennskap med kong Magnus, skriver Snorre, på grunn av den motstanden de hadde satt i verk mot kongen. De satte ut på et desperat plyndringstokt nordover langs kysten. De vant et slag mot trønderne ledet av lendmannen Sigurd Ullstreng, og dro deretter nordover da kong Magnus seilte etter dem. De kom så langt nord som til Bjarkøy i Hålogaland, brente gården og røvet løsøre. Hærstyrken til Magnus Berrføtt fikk endelig fatt i dem og klynget dem opp i et tre.

Snorre nevner at Steigar-Tore var gammel, stor og tung av fedme. Da han ble hengt ble halsen slitt av, og kroppen falt til jorda. «Vonde er vonde råd,» sa han på veg mot galgen. Deretter kunne kong Magnus sikre freden for landet og «ødela for alle ransmenn».

Krig mot Danmark og Sverige

Da Håkon var død kunne Magnus vende blikket mot utlandet. Som farfaren hadde gjort før ham lot han rene plyndringstokter fylle statskassen. Fra Viken seilte han sør til Halland i Danmark og herjet vidt og bredt. «Der brente han Viskadalen og flere andre bygder. Han vant mye gods der og fór siden tilbake til sitt rike,» skriver Snorre.

Fienden i hast ble jaget;

hordekongen svidde av hus.

Høyt steig flammer i vinden.

Viskdalske enker fikk våke.^[1]

Ved utløpet av Göta älv møttes de tre nordiske rikene. Her hadde de politiske forholdene vært ustabile i mange år og grensene aldri blitt skikkelig fastlagt. I 1097 rykket Magnus Berrføtt inn i Götaland med «en stor og vakker hær» for å sikre den norske grensen og for å pasifisere områdene langs den økonomisk viktige ferdselsåren. Han red rundt med hæren og herjet og brente inntil lokalbefolkningen svor troskap til ham. Ved den store innsjøen Vänern lot han bygge en borg av torv og tømmer og grov en vollgrav rundt. Her etterlot han en garnison på 300 mann med forråd, ledet av Finn Skoftesson og Sigurd Ullstreng, før han dro tilbake til Viken.^[2]

Da isen festet seg på innsjøen kom svenskekongen med en stor hær. Han krevde at nordmennene skulle overgi seg, men de avviste tilbudet. Først etter at svenskene hadde fylt diket og dratt i stykker befestningen overga nordmennene seg. Uten våpen og ytterklær dro de ydmyket tilbake til Norge. Om våren dro kong Magnus igjen tilbake til Sverige for å herje og brenne. Da de kom på østsiden av Göta älv ved Foksene, nå Fuxerna i Lilla Edets kommun, kom de i kamp med en svensk hær. Nordmennene var underlegne og tok til slutt til flukten. Svenskene fulgte etter og drepte de som de kom over, men Magnus Berrføtt greide med nød og neppe å slippe unna.

Fred og bryllup

Sommeren 1101 ble det avtalt stevne mellom de tre nordiske kongene ved Konghelle i norske Båhuslen. De ble enige om at grensene skulle være som under rikene til fedrene deres. Magnus oppnådde intet på hærferden til Sverige, men han fikk ekte datteren til svenskekongen, Margret Ingedatter (1085–1130). Hun blir siden kalt for Margret Fredskolla (Fredskvinne), på svensk kalt Margareta Fredskulla. De fikk ingen barn sammen, og hun ble siden gift medNils Sveinsson, sønn av Svein Estridsson av Danmark. Til tross for grensetvisten til en viss grad ble ordnet på fredsmøtet skulle det strategiske området forbli et tvisteområde i flere hundre år i nordisk historie.

Margret Fredskolla kom østfra med stort følge til Norge. Magnus hadde allerede noen barn, nevner Snorre tørt, og lister Øystein, født av en navnløs og «lite gjæv mor»; Sigurd, født av Tora; og Olav, født av Sigrid Saksedatter fraStrinda i Trøndelag, og denne frillen var gjæv nok. Han hadde også en datter, Ragnild Magnusdatter, som enkelte steder oppgis å være født av Margret Fredskolla, men det er neppe riktig da datteren må være født rundt 1090.

Odo (or Eudes) (c. 852 – 1 January 898) was a King of Western Francia, reigning from 888 to 898. He was a son of Robert the Strong, count of Anjou, whose branch of the family is known as the Robertians. Odo is also known as the Duke of France and Count of Paris.

Origins

Odo was the eldest son of Robert the Strong, Duke of the Franks and Marquis of Neustria, belonging to the branch known as the Robertians. After his father's death in 866, Odo inherited his father's title of Marquis of Neustria. Odo lost this title in 868 when King Charles the Bald appointed Hugh the Abbot to the title, but regained it following the death of Hugh in 886. After 882, he held the post of Count of Paris. Odo was also the lay abbot of St. Martin of Tours.^[1][2]

Odo married Théodrate of Troyes and had two known sons, Arnulf (born probably about 885) and Guy (born probably about 888), neither of whom lived past the age of fifteen.

King

For his skill and bravery in resisting the attacks of the Vikings at the Siege of Paris, Odo was chosen by the western Franks to be their king following the removal of emperor Charles the Fat. He was crowned at Compiègne in February 888 by Walter, Archbishop of Sens.^[3]

 

Denier of Odo of France

Odo continued to battle against the Vikings and defeated them at Montfaucon, but he was soon involved in a struggle with powerful nobles who supported the claim of Charles the Simple to the Frankish throne.

In 889 and 890 Odo granted special privileges to the County of Manresa in Osona. Because of its position on the front line against Moorish aggression, Manresa was given the right to build towers of defence known as manresanas or manresanes. This privilege was responsible for giving Manresa its unique character, distinct from the rest of Osona, for the next two centuries.

To gain prestige and support, Odo paid homage to the Eastern Frankish King Arnulf of Carinthia. But in 894 Arnulf declared his support for Charles, and after a conflict which lasted three years, Odo was compelled to come to terms with his rival and surrender a district north of the Seine to him.

Odo died in La Fère on 1 January 898.

Palnatoke eller Toke Palnasson var en dansk høvding og sagnhelt på Fyn i Danmark på midten av 900-tallet. Han var muligens sønn av Palne Tokesson og Gunhild Haraldsdatter. I henhold til Jomsvikingenes saga var Palnatoke den som grunnla Jomsborg og ga lovene for stedet. Antagelig er Palnatoke en historisk person som siden har fått knyttet en rekke vandresagn til sitt navn.

Palnatoke skal ha vært sønn av Pallig eller Palna Tokesson som igjen kunne føre sin slekt til Gorm den gamles sønn Toke ‘Valtoke’ Gormsson. Hans mor var Gunhild Haraldsdatter, etter sigende datter av Harald Blåtann. Om dette slektskapet er riktig var han både mors- som på farssiden i slekt med det danske kongehuset. Palnatoke skal ha vært far til Skjalm Hvide, jarl av Sjælland, og en Palne eller Pallig, men det heftes stor usikkerhet i dette.

Pepin, or Pippin, the Hunchback (French: Pépin le Bossu; c. 767 – 811 at Prüm) was the eldest son of Charlemagne. Born to the Frankish noblewoman Himiltrude, Pepin probably developedkyphosis after birth, leading early medieval historians to give him the epithet “hunchback.” He lived with his father’s court even after Charlemagne dismissed his mother and took another wife,Hildegard. Around 781, Pepin’s half brother Carloman was rechristened as “Pepin of Italy” - a step that may have signaled Charlemagne’s decision to disinherit the elder Pepin, for a variety of possible reasons. In 792, Pepin the Hunchback revolted against his father with a group of leading Frankish nobles, but the plot was discovered and put down before the conspirators could put it into action. Charlemagne commuted Pepin’s death sentence, having him tonsured and exiled to the monastery of Prüm instead. Since his death in 811, Pepin has been the subject of numerous works of historical fiction.

Piast Kołodziej (Piast the Wheelwright) was a semi-legendary figure in medieval Poland (9th century AD), the founder of the Piast dynasty that would rule the future Kingdom of Poland.

Legend and aftermath

Piast makes an appearance in the Polish Chronicle of Gallus Anonymus,^[2] along with his father, Chościsko, and Piast's wife, Rzepka.

The chronicle tells the story of an unexpected visit paid to Piast by two strangers. They ask to join Piast's family in celebration of the 7th birthday of Piast’s son, Siemowit (a pagan rite of passage for young boys). In return for the hospitality, the guests cast a spell making Piast's cellar ever full of plenty. Seeing this, Piast's compatriots declare him their new prince, to replace the late Prince Popiel.

 

Monument to Piast Kołodziej inZłotów

If Piast really existed, he would have been the great-great-grandfather of Prince Mieszko I (c. 930–92), the first historic ruler of Poland, and the great-great-great-grandfather of Bolesław Chrobry (967–1025), the first Polish king.

Two theories explain the etymology of the word Piast. The first gives the root as piasta ("hub" in Polish), a reference to his profession. The second relates Piast to piastun ("custodian" or "keeper"). This could hint at Piast's initial position as a maior domus (majordomo), or a "steward of the house", in the court of another ruler, and the subsequent takeover of power by Piast. This would parallel the development of the early medieval Frankish dynasties, when the majordomos (Mayors of the Palace) of the Merovingian kings gradually usurped political control.

Ragnar Lodbrok (norrønt Ragnarr Loðbrók) var en delvis legendarisk svensk og dansk småkonge som levde en gang på 700- og 800-tallet. I henhold til krønikeskriveren Saxo Grammaticus hørte Ragnar til den svenske Ynglingeætten. Både Saxo og islandske kilder har beskrevet ham som sønn av Sigurd Ring, en svensk konge som etter sigende skal ha erobret Danmark, men kildene strides om Ragnar bodde i Sverige eller i Danmark.

Myte eller historisk figur?

Selv om Ragnar Lodbrok ble betraktet som en helt i det norrøne Norden er troverdige opptegnelser om livet hans svært overfladiske og hviler tungt på legendariske fornaldersagaer. Selv en noenlunde datering av hans tid og liv hviler på stor usikkerhet: noen kilder nevner 750-794, mens andre kilder daterer betydelig senere fra 860-865. Antagelig var han en krigsherre fra antatt 835 til sin død i 865, og kanskje kun hersket som konge de siste få årene av livet. Den historiske Ragnar Lodbrok var muligens en jarl for den danske kong Hårek.^[1]

De viktigste kildene til kunnskap om Ragnar Lodbrok er Ragnar Lodbroks saga (Ragnars Saga Lodbrokar), den kortere og kanskje yngre Tåtten om Ragnarsønnenes saga (Þáttr af Ragnars sonum) og i Bosi og Herrauds saga. Han nevnes også i Volsungesaga og i Orknøyingenes saga som Snorre Sturlasson kaller «jarlesagaen». Det knyttes en forbindelse mellom Ragnar Lodbrok og Orknøyene. En runestein der bærer hans navn. I henhold til De fragmentariske irske annaler ble Ragnars sønn Halvdan med sine tre sønner fordrevet til Orknøyene. Det skjedde senest i 854. Ragnar Lodbrok er også en sentral skikkelse i skaldekvadet Håttalykill (Háttalykill inn forni = Versemålnøkkelen), diktet av islendingen Hall Torarinsson og Ragnvald Orknøyjarl i fellesskap. Skaldekvadet Krákumál, som er skrevet på 1100-tallet, foregir å være Ragnars dødssang.

Lodbrok betyr «lodden bukse», kanskje fordi Ragnar laget seg en rustning av dyreskinn. Navnet «Lothbroc» finnes i verket Gesta Normannorum Ducum av William av Jumièges (ca. 1070) hvor denne blir nevnt som far til Bjørn Jernside, sistnevnte blir bekreftet av andre kilder. Ivar Beinlause er også blitt identifisert som sønn av Ragnar Lodbrok av Adam av Bremen som kalte Ivar sønn av «Lodparchus»^[2]. Det er den islandske sagaskribenten Are Torgilsson Frode (1067–1148) som er den første kjente forfatteren som knytter Lodbrok med fornavnet Ragnar, eller knytter to personer sammen til en skikkelse, Ragnar og Lodbrok. I Irlands fragmentariske annaler finnes det en opptegnelse over en «Ragnall» (Ragnvald), sønn av «Alpdan» (Halvdan), «konge av Norge», og hans bedrifter fram til York faller til danskene. Det er et av de sterkeste argumenter for at Ragnall eller Ragnvald er den samme som Ragnar Lodbrok, og for krønikeskrivere på de britiske øyer var det vanskelig å skille mellom norsk eller dansk når de knapt nok gjorde det selv.

I fornaldersagaene ble Ragnar gjort til konge av Danmark og drar på fantastiske eventyr over hele verden. Blant annet møter han den enestående vakre og trolldomskyndige Åslaug Sigurdsdatter i Norge som blir hans andre kone. Hun føder ham fire sønner. Åslaug, som også blir kalt for «Kråka», skal være datter av Sigurd Fåvnesbane, en annen legendarisk helt fra fornaldersagaene. Som Kråka er Åslaug ei norrøn Askepott og blir hyllet i både Norge og Danmark, og hennes funksjon er å være en forbindelse mellom Odin og de norrøne fornalderkongene som krevde å nedstamme fra gudene.

Røver og helt

Ragnar var en førkristen hedning som påsto at han var en direkte etterkommer av ingen ringere enn Odin selv. En av hans favorittstrategier var å angripe kristne byer på helligdager, vel vitende om at mange av soldatene da ville være i kirken.

Ragnar tilbrakte det meste av livet som pirat og viking, invaderte det ene landet etter det andre. Han ville vanligvis godta en høy betaling for å la være å angripe sine ofre, kun for å komme tilbake senere og forlange en enda høyere betaling for ikke å angripe. Omfanget av hans virksomhet tyder på at han må ha vært en dyktig hærfører.

Ravnen var Ragnar Lodbroks symbol. Han hadde fått sine døtre til å sy et banner med en ravn avbildet. Ravnen hadde i alle år vært en fugl knyttet til dårlige varsler lik Odin selv eide to ravner kalt Hugin og Munin som fortalte om det som skjedde i verden. Banneret kalte han «Reafan», og det ble sagt at når banneret flagret ville Ragnar seire, men om det hang livløst vil slaget være tapt. Også de norske kongene Harald Hårfagre og Harald Hardråde eide et tilsvarende ravnebanner.

Frankrike

I 845 var han tilsynelatende en mektig hersker og sannsynligvis samtidig med den første herskeren av Russland, den norrøne Rurik. Det er sagt at Ragnar alltid søkte nye eventyr ettersom han fryktet for at hans egne sønner ville utføre gjerninger som ville overskygge hans egne.

I dette året seilte han sørover med 120 skip og anslagsvis 5 000 krigere. Han gikk i land i dagens Frankrike, sannsynligvis ved munningen av elven Seine og herjet i «Vest-Francia», som den vestlige delen av det frankiske riket den gang var kjent som.

Det samme året ble Paris okkupert og holdt som gissel av norrøne menn, og som sagaene har identifisert som Ragnar Lodbrok. Den tradisjonelle datoen for dette er 28. mars. En fortelling forteller at de soldatene som var utplassert for å vokte Klosterkirken Saint-Denis flyktet da de danske vikingene henrettet sine fanger på en særdeles grusom måte. Kongen av Vest-Francia, Karl den stores sønnesønn Karl den skallete betalte Ragnar en enorm sum penger for ikke å ødelegge byen. Ragnar Lodbrok, i henhold til sagatradisjonen, var tilfreds med ikke mindre enn 7 000 pund sølv. Det forhindret dog ikke at Ragnar angrep andre deler av Frankrike, og det kostet mye tid og anstrengelser for frankerne å drive ham ut.

England

Etter at han var ferdig med Frankrike dro Ragnar tilbake til Danmark hvor han senere døde. Eller han var den som vendte sin oppmerksomhet mot England og i 865 gikk i land i Northumbria på nordøstkysten av England. Det er blitt sagt at han ble beseiret for første gang i slag av kong Ælla II av Northumbria. Ælles menn tok Ragnar til fange og den angelsaksiske kongen ga ordre om at han skulle kastes i et hull som var fylt med giftige slanger. Mens han langsomt ble bitt i hjel av slangene skal han etter sigende ha erklært: «Grynte ville grisene, om de visste hva galten led!» Diktet Krákumál som omtaler en rekke av hans bedrifter påstår å være diktet av ham selv den siste natten han var i live i ormegården. En Ragnar ble avlivet av Æella i Kirk Douglas-filmen The Vikings (Vikingene), men i denne versjonen, hvor sønnen heter Einar, av ulver i hullet.

Ragnar blir hevnet

Ragnars siste ord er selvsagt et litterært påfunn ettersom de ble profetiske. I henhold til sagaen fikk hans fire sønner høre om hans død: Halvdan Kvitserk som spilte Hnefatafl (et brettspill kalt «Kongens bord» eller «Tablut») grep så hardt om en spillbrikke at blod tøt ut fra neglene; Bjørn Jernside grep så hardt om spydet at fingermerkene sto igjen om skaftet; og Sigurd Orm-i-auga som trimmet neglene kuttet seg med kniven rett inn til beinet.

Kun den fjerde sønnen, Ivar Beinlause, lyttet til alle detaljene om drapet og forberedte hevnen. Brødrene samlet sammen en enorm hærstyrke, dro til Northumbria, beseiret kong Ællas hær og torturerte denne i hjel ved å skjæreblodørn på ham. Det vil si at de skar opp ryggen, brettet ribbeina til side og trakk ut lungene til offeret døde. Det er opplagt overdrevet at Ragnars død skulle få såpass store konsekvenser, men Ivar Beinløse er uten tvil en historisk skikkelse som i 866 erobret først York og deretter hele nordlige England.

Ragnars antatte slekt

Ragnar Lodbrok var gift eller fikk barn med en rekke kvinner, hans første Tora Borgarhjort^[3], hans andre hustru Åslaug Sigurdsdatter (også kalt Kråka), hans tredje hustru Lathgertha, hans fjerde hustru Svanloga; og hans femte navnløse hustru (datter av Esbern). Av de ulike fortellingene, feilkilder og overdrivelser inkludert, fikk han følgende sønner:

• Ivar Beinlause, sønn av Åslaug
• Halvdan Kvitserk Ragnarsson, sønn av Åslaug
• Sigurd Orm-i-auga Ragnarsson, sønn av Åslaug
• Bjørn Jernside Ragnarsson, sønn av Åslaug
• Ubbe Ragnarsson, sønn av navnløse hustru, eller av Åslaug?
• Agnar Ragnarsson, sønn av Tora
• Eirik Vindhatt Ragnarsson, sønn av Tora
• Regnald Ragnarsson, sønn av Svanloga
• Rathbarth Ragnarsson, sønn av Tora (?)
• Dunyat Ragnarsson, sønn av Tora (?)
• Fridleiv Ragnarsson, sønn av Lathgertha.

Og følgende døtre:

• Alof Ragnarsdatter
• Ragnhild Ragnarsdatter

Ifølge Ragnar Lodbroks saga var sønnen hans, Sigurd Orm-i-auga, far til Ragnhild som igjen var mor til Harald Hårfagre. Men ifølge Halvdan Svartes saga hadde Sigurd Orm-i-auga datteren Åslaug som ble gift med Helge den kvasse. De fikk sønnen Sigurd Hjort som var konge på Hadeland. Hans datter var Ragnhild som ble gift med Halvdan Svarte og mor til Harald Hårfagre.

Roskildekrøniken (skrevet i Danmark på 1140-tallet) nevner «kong Ivar, som siges at have manglet knokler» (Ivar Beinlause) og hans brødre Ingvar, Ubbe, Bjørn og Ulf som sønner av «Lodbrok».^[4] Ingvar - som også nevnes av Adam av Bremen - er samme mann som Ivar selv. I engelske krøniker nevnes bare Ubbe.

Ragnvald Øysteinsson Mørejarl (norrønt Rögnvaldr Mœrajarl) (circa 830 – 892) var en jarl på nordvestlandet i Norge på midten av 800-tallet, tilsvarende det området som i dag heter Møre og Romsdal.

Ragnvalds ætt

Ragnvald var sønn av Øystein Ivarsson som ble kalt for Øystein Glumra. I henhold til Orknøyingenes saga går Ragnvalds ætt tilbake til «Heite Gors sønn var far til Sveide sjøkonge, far til Halvdan den gamle, far til Ivar Opplendingejarl, far til Øystein Glumra, far til Ragnvald jarl den mektige og den rådsnare». Den samme sagaen strekker hans ætt tilbake til en mytologisk opprinnelse til skikkelse ved navn Fornjot fra Finland eller Kvenland.

Snorre Sturlason skriver i Harald Hårfagres saga i Heimskringla: «Ragnvald Mørejarl var den kjæreste venn kong Harald hadde, og kongen satte ham høyt. Ragnvald jarl var gift med Hild, datter til Rolv Nevja; deres sønner var Rolv og Tore. Ragnvald jarl hadde noen frillesønner også; en het Hallad; en annen Einar og en tredje Rollaug; de var voksne da de ektefødte brødrene deres var barn ennå. Rolv var en stor viking; han var så svær til vekst at ingen hest kunne bære ham, derfor gikk han til fots overalt. Han ble kalt for Gange-Rolv. Han herjet ofte i austerveg.»

Ragnvald var således far til sagnomsuste Gange-Rolf som i sagalitteraturen er blitt identifisert som den nordbo som franskmennene kaller for «Rollo» og som grunnla et jarldømme i Normandie. Dette har imidlertid aldri blitt historisk dokumentert ettersom kildene spriker i alle retninger, en av dem som stiller seg bak de tidligere nevnte tradisjonene er Jón Viðar Sigurðsson i boken Norsk Historie 800 – 1300 (Det Norske Samlaget, 1999). Via sønnen Torv-Einar ble Ragnvalds ætt giftet inn i det skotske kongehuset.

Den rådsnare

Ifølge Snorre satte Harald Hårfagre Ragnvald til å være jarl over Nordmøre og Romsdal (og etter hvert Sunnmøre). Kongen gav ham rett til hjelp av både stormenn og bønder, likeså skip nok til å verge landet for ufred. Ragnvald ble også kalt Ragnvald jarl den mektige eller den rådsnare, og det ble sagt at begge navnene var sanne.

Kongen skal ha betraktet Ragnvald som en av sine viktigste menn og legenden sier at Ragnvald var den som klippet kongens hår da han etter ti år var blitt konge over alle i Norge. Før ble kongen kalt for «Harald Luva» (Lurvehode), men etter at håret var skåret, ga Ragnvald ham et nytt navn, «Hårfagre».

Orknøyene

Snorre forteller at Ragnvald sendte sønnen Hallad vestover etter at broren Sigurd var blitt drept, men han ble så plaget av vikinger og ransmenn at han ble lei og kom tilbake. Faren ble da sint og skjelte ham ut for ikke å ligne på forfedrene sine. Den andre sønnen, Einar, lovte da at han kunne reise til Orknøyene og aldri komme tilbake til Norge mer. Ragnvald jarl skal da ha sagt at det var like greit om han aldri kom tilbake igjen: «For jeg har ikke større håp om at dine frender får ære av deg, for alle i morsætta di er trellbårne».

Ragnvald utstyrte sønnen med skip og mannskap og lot ham dro vestover hvor han kom i kamp med vikinger og drepte dem. På Orknøyene ble han kalt for Torv-Einar for han lot skjære torv som brensel for det vokste ikke trær der. Han ble jarl på Orknøyene og en mektig mann, enøyd og stygg å se på.

Innebrent

Da Harald Hårfagre tok til å eldes ble sønnene hans Halvdan Hålegg og Gudrød Ljome stadig mer misfornøyd med at de selv ikke hadde noe rike mens faren hadde innsatt jarler rundt om i fylkene. De besluttet da å ikke vente mer på odelen sin. Snorre skriver at «de dro ut med en stor flokk og kom uventet over Ragnvald Mørejarl, kringsatte huset hans og brente ham inne med seksti mann.»

Da kongen hørte dette dro han med en stor hær mot Gudrød som overga seg og ble sendt til Agder. Kongen innsatte så Tore Teiande, sønn av Ragnvald Mørejarl, som ny jarl og giftet ham med datteren Ålov. Kongsdatteren ble siden kalt «Årbot». Halvdan Hålegg dro derimot over til Orknøyene, kom uventet på Torv-Einar som måtte flykte, men samme høst kom Torv-Einar tilbake og overrasket Halvdan og fikk ham drept.

Robert I of Flanders (c. 1035–1093), known as Robert the Frisian, was count of Flanders from 1071 to his death in 1093.

He was the younger son of Baldwin V of Flanders and Adèle, a daughter of King Robert II of France.^[1] His elder brother, Baldwin, succeeded their father as Baldwin VI, Count of Flanders and his sister Matilda of Flanders had married William, then duke of Normandy and later King of England. His marriage to Gertrude of Saxony, dowager Countess of Holland in 1063 was not arranged by his father but nonetheless agreed to.^[2] She was the widow of Floris I, Count of Holland, who already had three children including a daughter Bertha.^[3] His nickname 'the Frisian' was obtained, apparently, when he acted as regent for his stepson Dirk V, Count of Holland^[2] (Frisia being the name for Holland at the time).

On his deathbed in 1070, Robert's brother Baldwin VI, Count of Flanders, left Flanders to his eldest son Arnulf III and Hainaut to the next oldest son Baldwin with the provision that if either preceded the other in death, he would inherit the other's county as well.^[4] Baldwin VI further entrusted his brother Robert with the safeguard of his son Arnulf III, who was still a minor, to which Robert gave his oath of homage and solemn promise to protect his nephew Arnulf.^[4] Richilde, Arnulf's mother and de jure Countess of Hainaut was to be regent until Arnulf came of age.^[5]

After Baldwin VI's death, however, Robert disputed the succession of Arnulf and entered Ghent with the intent of taking Flanders for himself.^[6] Richilde appealed to King Philip I of France who summoned Robert to appear before him.^[7] Robert refused and continued his war with Richilde at which point Philip I amassed an army which he brought to Flanders.^[6] His army was accompanied by Norman troops, probably sent by Queen Matilda and led by William FitzOsborn.^[a][5] William had an interest in marrying Richilde but he was killed in battle atCassel,^[5] which battle was joined on 22 February 1071.^[5] In that engagement Robert's forces were ultimately victorious but Robert himself was captured and his forces in turn captured the Countess Richilde.^[7] Both were freed in exchange and the battle continued to its conclusion.^[7] Among the dead was Arnulf III, killed by Gerbod the Fleming, 1st Earl of Chester who apparently fought for Robert.^[8] As a result of the battle Robert claimed the countship of Flanders.^[7] The Countess Richilde and her son Baldwin returned to Hainaut but continued to instigate hostilities against Robert.^[7]

Count Robert eventually gained the friendship of King Philip I of France by offering him the hand in marriage of his stepdaughter, Bertha of Holland.^[9] As a part of their negotiationsCorbie, an important trade center on the border between Flanders and lesser France, was returned to royal control.^[10] Unlike his father's reign, under Count Robert, Flanders no longer had peaceful ties to Normandy and became a refuge for the Conqueror's enemies, including his rebellious son, Robert Curthose in 1078.^[b][9] In 1085 Robert the Frisian, along with his son-in-law Canute IV of Denmark, planned a naval attack on England, but after Cnut's assassination the plan was never carried out.^[9] Taking a considerable armed escort Robert the Frisian made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1086 and on the return trip home spent time assisting the Byzantine Emperor (Alexios I Komnenos) against the Seljuq Turks.^[11] In one battle Robert and three of his companions rode ahead of the main army charging the forces under the command of Kerbogha, whose forces the Christians scattered completely.^[12] Robert died 13 October 1093.

Robert married Gertrude of Saxony, widow of Floris I, Count of Holland. They had the following children:

• Robert II, Count of Flanders, married Clementia of Burgundy.^[1]
• Adela of Flanders († 1115); married firstly King Canute IV of Denmark,^[1] and was the mother of Charles the Good, later Count of Flanders; married secondly Duke of Apulia.^[1]
• Gertrude; married firstly Henry III, Count of Leuven and had four children;^[1] and secondly Thierry II, Duke of Lorraine,^[1] by whom she was the mother of Thierry of Alsace, also later Count of Flanders.
• Philip of Loo,^[1] whose illegitimate son William of Ypres was also a claimant to the county of Flanders.
• Ogiva, Abbess of Messines.^[1]
• Baldwin († bef. 1080).

Robert I of France (866–923) was the king of West Francia from 922 to 923. Before his succession to the kingdom he was Count of Poitiers, Count of Paris and Marquis of Neustriaand Orléans. He succeeded the Carolingian king Charles the Simple, who in 898 had succeeded Robert’s brother Odo.

Life

Robert was born in 866 the posthumous son of Robert the Strong, count of Anjou, and the brother of Odo, who became king of the Western Franks in 888.^[1] West Francia evolved over time into France;^[2] under Odo, the capital was fixed on Paris, a large step in that direction. Robert and Odo's family is known as the Robertians.^[3]

Robert was present at the Siege of Paris in 885.^[4] He was appointed by Odo as the ruler of several counties, including the county of Paris, and abbot in commendam of many abbeys. Robert also secured the office of Dux Francorum, a military dignity of high importance. He did not claim the crown of West Francia when his brother died in 898; instead recognized the supremacy of the Carolingian king, Charles the Simple. Charles then confirmed Robert in his offices and possessions, after which he continued to defend northern Francia from the attacks of the Norsemen. Robert defeated a large band of Norse in the Loire Valley in 921, and the defeated invaders converted to Christianity and settled near Nantes.^[5]

The peace between the king and his powerful vassal was not seriously disturbed until about 921. The rule of Charles, and especially his partiality for a certain Hagano, had aroused some irritation; and, supported by many of the clergy and by some of the most powerful of the Frankish nobles, Robert took up arms, drove Charles into Lorraine, and was himself crowned king of the Franks (rex Francorum) at Rheims on 29 June 922.^[6] Robert's rule was contested by the Viking leader Rollo, who had settled in Normandy in 911 with the permission of Charles the Simple. During Robert's reign, Rollo remained loyal to Charles, who continued to contest his deposition.^[5] Collecting an army, Charles marched against the usurper and, on 15 June 923, in a battle near Soissons, Robert was killed, but his army won the battle, and Charles was captured.^[7] Charles remained a captive until his death in 929. Robert was succeeded as king by his son-in-law Rudolph, Count of Burgundy, also known as Raoul.

Family

Robert's first wife was Aelis.^[9] By her he had two daughters:

• Adele of France (c. 887–aft. March 931) to Herbert II of Vermandois^[10][11]

Robert married secondly, c. 890, Béatrice of Vermandois, daughter of Herbert I of Vermandois.^[1] Together they had :

• Emma of France (894–935), married to Rudolph, Duke of Burgundy^[10]
• Hugh the Great,(898-) who was later dux Francorum.^[1] Hugh was the father of Hugh Capet, King of the Franks.

Robert II (27 March 972 – 20 July 1031), called the Pious (French: le Pieux) or the Wise (French: le Sage), was King of the Franks from 996 until his death. The second reigning member of the House of Capet, he was born in Orléans to Hugh Capet and Adelaide of Aquitaine.

Robert II, also spelt Rodbert and Chrodobert (died about 807) was a Frankish nobleman who was count of Worms and of Rheingau and duke of Hesbaye around the year 800. He is the earliest known male-line ancestor of the French royal family called the Capetians (including the Valois and the Bourbons), and of other royal families which ruled in Portugal, Spain, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

Descendants

Robert of Hesbaye is the earliest certain ancestor of the dynasty known as the Robertians. His son was Robert III of Worms, and his grandson was Robert the Strong. He was eventually the great-grandfather of two Frankish kings, Odo and Robert, both of whom ruled the kingdom of Western Francia.

One of Robert of Hesbaye's male-line descendants was Hugh Capet, the founder of the French royal dynasty which ruled France continuously until 1848, although with a brief interregnum caused by the French revolution and the First French Empire. A junior line has held the Spanish Crown since 1700; the current monarch Felipe VI and his family are direct descendants.

Possible ancestry

Robert of Hesbaye's father, also called Robert, was probably the son of Thuringbert of Worms and Rheingau and thus a grandson of Robert I, Duke of Neustria (c. 697–764). The paternal ancestors of Robert I are known to ascend in line as follows:

1. Lambert II, Count of Haspengau (c. 682–741)
2. Chrodobertus II, Count of Haspengau (fl. 650)
3. Lambert I de Haspengau (c. 620–650)
4. Chrodobertus I de Haspengau (c. 600–630)
5. Charibert de Haspengau (c. 555–636)

Robert of Hesbaye's mother may have been Princess Chrotlind, a daughter of Theuderic III, Merovingian king of Austrasia.

It is also possible that Ingerman of Hesbaye and Cancor were brothers of Robert of Hesbaye, and Landrada, mother of Saint Chrodegang, archbishop of Metz, is likely to have been his sister. Ermengarde, the wife of emperorLouis the Pious was probably his niece.

Rollo (c. 846 – c. 932), baptised Robert^[1] and so sometimes numbered Robert I to distinguish him from his descendants, was a Norse Viking who was founder and first ruler of theViking principality which soon became known as Normandy. His descendants were the Dukes of Normandy, and following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, kings of England.

Name

The name "Rollo" is a Latin translation from the Old Norse name Hrólfr, modern Icelandic name Hrólfur and Scandinavian name Rolf (cf. the latinization of Hrólfr into the similar Roluo in the Gesta Danorum), but Norman people called him by his popular name Rou(f) (see Wace's Roman de Rou).^[2] Sometimes his name is turned into the Frankish name Rodolf(us) orRadulf(us) or the French Raoul, that are derived from it.

Historical evidence

Started in the late 9th century, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the earliest record of Rollo. However, it does not mention his origins.

A.D. 876. This year Rolla penetrated Normandy with his army; and he reigned fifty winters.^[3]

Rollo was a powerful Viking leader of contested origin. Dudo of Saint-Quentin, in his De moribus et actis primorum Normannorum ducum,^[4] tells of a powerful Danish nobleman at loggerheads with the king of Denmark, who had two sons, Gurim and Rollo; upon his death, Rollo was expelled and Gurim killed. Dudo's chronicle, commissioned for Richard I, was finished, sometime after 1015,^[5] for Richard II, whose sister, Emma, married the Danish King Cnut, in 1017. William of Jumièges also mentions Rollo's prehistory in his continuation of Dudo's work, Gesta Normannorum Ducum, but states that he came from the Danish town ofFakse.

Norwegian and Icelandic historians, basing their research on medieval Norwegian and Icelandic sagas, identified Rollo instead with Ganger Hrolf (Hrolf, the Walker), a son of Rognvald Eysteinsson (fl. 865), Earl of Møre in Western Norway. The Latin Historia Norvegiae, written in Norway at the end of the 12th century, offers the oldest source of this version. This Hrolf fell foul of the Norwegian king Harald Fairhair (c. 850 – c. 932, reigned c. 872 – 930), and became a Jarl in Normandy. The nickname "the Walker", "Ganger" in Norse, came from being so big that no horse could carry him.^[6][7][8]

Geoffrey of Malaterra, in his The Deeds of Count Roger of Calabria & Sicily & of Duke Robert Guiscard his brother claims Rollo "sailed boldly from Norway".^[9]

The question of Rollo's origins became a matter of heated dispute between Norwegian and Danish historians of the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the run-up to Normandy's millennium anniversary in 1911. Today, the debate continues.

Rotrude (or sometimes referred to as Hruodrud/Hruodhaid)^[1] (775/778 – 6 June 810) was the second daughter of Charlemagne from his marriage to Hildegard.

Few clear records remain of Princess Rotrude's early life. She was educated in the Palace School by Alcuin, who affectionately calls her Columba in his letters to her.^[2] When she was six, her father betrothed her toConstantine VI of Byzantium, whose mother Irene was ruling as regent. The Greeks called her Erythro and sent a scholar monk called Elisaeus to educate her in Greek language and manners.^[3] However, the alliance fell apart by 786 when she was eleven and Constantine's mother, Irene, broke the engagement in 788.

She had a relationship with Rorgo of Rennes and had one son with him, Louis, Abbot of Saint-Denis (800 – 9 January 867). She never married.

Rotrude eventually became a nun, joining her aunt Gisela, abbess of Chelles. The two women authored a letter to Alcuin of York, who was at Tours at the time, requesting that he write a commentary explaining the Gospel of John.^[4] As a result, Alcuin eventually produced his seven-book Commentaria in Iohannem Evangelistam, a more accessible companion to the gospel than St. Augustine's massive and challenging Tractatus in St. John. Commentators have dated the letter to the spring of 800, four years before Alcuin's death and ten before Rotrude's.^[5]

In contemporary views of history, most scholars discriminate between the two phases of Rotrude's life. Political histories of her father Charlemagne discuss her as a princess who was potentially a pawn and a woman of questionable morals,^[6] while religious histories discuss her as the second nun in the letter from Chelles.

Rozala of Italy (also known as Rozala of Lombardy, Rozala of Ivrea or Susanna of Ivrea; c. 950–960 –1003) was a Countess of Flanders and Queen consort of the Franks.

Rozala (Susanna), born sometime between 950–960, was the daughter of King Berengar of Ivrea, King of Italy (c. 900 – 966).^[1] Her mother was Willa of Tuscany, the daughter of Boso, Margrave of Tuscany and his wife Willa.^[2] In 968 she married Arnulf II, Count of Flanders (d. 987).^[1] On her husband's death, she acted as regent for her young son.

On c. 1 April 988 she married secondly the much younger Robert the Pious (972-1031), the Rex Filius of France; the marriage had been arranged by his father Hugh Capet.^[3] According to disputed account she brought her husband Montreuil and Ponthieu as a dowry, other assert that she was berieved her right to that territory. Upon her marriage, she took the name ofSusannah, and was the queen consort of the co-ruling king Robert, under senior King Hugh. From 991/992 the couple lived basically separated as Rozala had become too old (c. 38) to have more children and they lacked marital happiness.

When her father-in-law died in 996, however, Robert repudiated her completely, desiring to marry Bertha of Burgundy in her place.^[4] That marriage was not lawful because of too close kinship so Robert married a third time 1003 with Constance of Arles who bore him seven children.

Rozala retired back to Flanders, where she died and was buried. Robert retained control of her "dowry", or the rights to the mentioned territory.

Rosala was firstly (968–987) married to Arnulf II, Count of Flanders. They had the following children:

• Baldwin IV, Count of Flanders (980–1035)^[1]
• Mathilda (d. 995).^[1]

The second marriage (988-996) with Robert II of France did not produce any children.

Saint Ludmila (c. 860 – 15 September 921) is a Czech saint and martyr venerated by the Orthodox and the Roman Catholics. She was born in Mělník as daughter of a Slavic prince Slavibor. Saint Ludmila was the grandmother of Saint Wenceslaus, who is widely referred to as Good King Wenceslaus.

Marriage

Ludmila was married to Bořivoj I of Bohemia, who was the first Christian Duke of Bohemia. The couple was converted to Christianity around 871, probably through the efforts of SaintsCyril and Methodius.^[1] Their efforts to convert Bohemia to Christianity were initially not well received, and they were driven from their country for a time by the pagans. Eventually the couple returned, and ruled for several years before retiring to Tetín, near Beroun.

The couple was succeeded by their son Spytihněv, who ruled for two years before he died. Spytihněv was succeeded by his brother Vratislav. When Vratislav died in 921, his sonWenceslas became the next ruler of Bohemia.^[1] It had been mainly Ludmila who raised her grandson and she now acted as regent for him.

Ludmila and Drahomira

Wenceslaus' mother Drahomíra became jealous of Ludmila's influence over Wenceslaus. She had two noblemen murder Ludmila at Tetín, and part of Ludmila's story says that she was strangled with her veil. Initially Saint Ludmila was buried at St. Michael's at Tetín. Sometime before the year 1100 her remains were removed to the St. George's Basilica, Prague.^[1]

Saint Ludmila is venerated as a patroness of Bohemia. Her feast day is celebrated on 16 September. She is considered to be a patron saint of Bohemia, converts, Czech Republic, duchesses, problems with in-laws, and widows. She was canonized shortly after her death.

Saint Mathilda (or Matilda, c. 895 – 14 March 968) was the wife of King Henry I of Germany, the first ruler of the Saxon Ottonian (or Liudolfing) dynasty, thereby Duchess (consort) of Saxony from 912 and Queen (consort) of Germany (East Francia) from 919 until her husband's death in 936. Their eldest son Otto succeeded his father as King of Germany (East Francia) and years later was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962, thus ending the vacancy of this office begun in 924 with the death of Holy Roman Emperor Berengar I of Italy. Matilda lived to see the imperial crown restored under her son. Matilda's surname refers to Ringelheim, where her comital Immedinger relatives established a convent about 940.

The details of St. Matilda's life come largely from brief mentions in the Res gestae saxonicae of the monastic historian Widukind of Corvey (c. 925 – 973), and from two sacred biographies: the Vita antiquior and Vita posterior), written, respectively, circa 974 and circa 1003.

Matilda was born circa 895 in the region of Engern (Angria or Angaria), Westphalia, Duchy of Saxony, East Francia, presently divided between the states of Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, as the daughter of Count Dietrich of Westphalia and his wife Reinhild of Denmark,^[1] and her biographers traced her ancestry back to the legendarySaxon leader Widukind (c. 730 – 807). One of her sisters married Count Wichmann the Elder, a member of the House of Billung.

As a young girl she was sent to Herford Abbey, where her grandmother Matilda was abbess and where her reputation for beauty and virtue (and possibly also her Westphalian dowry) is said to have attracted the attention of Duke Otto I of Saxony, who betrothed her to his son and heir, Henry, whose previous "marriage" was annulled.^[2] They were married atWallhausen, Saxony-Anhalt, in present day Germany in 909 or 913.^[3] As the eldest surviving son, Henry succeeded his father as Duke of Saxony in 912 and upon the death of King Conrad I was elected King of East Francia (later Germany) in 919. He and Matilda had three sons and two daughters:

• Hedwig (910 – 965), wife of the West Frankish duke Hugh the Great, mother of King Hugh Capet of France

• Otto (912 – 973), Duke of Saxony, King of Germany from 936, and Holy Roman Emperor from 962

• Gerberga (913 – 984), wife of (1) Duke Giselbert of Lorraine and (2) King Louis IV of France

• Henry (919/21 – 955), Duke of Bavaria from 948

• St. Bruno the Great (925 – 965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lorraine

Stift Quedlinburg, drawing, about 956

After her husband died in 936 at Memleben, Matilda and her son, now King Otto of East Francia, established Quedlinburg Abbey in Quedlinburg, Saxony, East Francia, in present dayQuedlinburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, in his memory, as a convent of noble canonesses, where in 966 her granddaughter, also named Matilda, became the first abbess. At first the Queen Mother remained at the court of her son; however in the quarrels between the young king and his rivaling brother, Henry a cabal of royal advisors is reported to have accused her of decreasing the royal treasury in order to pay for her charitable activities. After a brief exile at her Westphalian manors in Enger, where she established a college of canons in 947, Matilda was brought back to court at the urging of King Otto's first wife, the Anglo-Saxon princess Edith of Wessex.

Matilda died on 14 March 968 in Quedlinburg Abbey, Quedlinburg, Saxony, East Francia, Holy Roman Empire, in present day Quedlinburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany,^[4] outliving her husband by 32 years and having seen the restoration of the Holy Roman Empire. Her and Henry's mortal remains are buried in the crypt of St. Servatius Church within Quedlinburg Abbey.

Veneration

Saint Matilda was celebrated for her devotion to prayer and almsgiving; her first biographer depicted her (in a passage indebted^{[citation needed]} to the sixth-century vita of the Frankish queenRadegund by Venantius Fortunatus) leaving her husband's side in the middle of the night and sneaking off to church to pray. St. Matilda founded many religious institutions, including the canonry of Quedlinburg, which became a center of ecclesiastical and secular life in Germany under the rule of the Ottonian dynasty, as well as the convents of St. Wigbert in Quedlinburg, in Pöhlde, Enger, and Nordhausen in Thuringia, likely the source of at least one of her vitae.

She was later canonized, with her cult largely confined to Saxony and Bavaria. St. Matilda's feast day according to the regional German calendar of saints is on 14 March.

Sigurd Eiriksson (født 9?? død 10??) var sønn av Eirik Bjodaskalle fra Obrestad, bror til Astrid Eiriksdatter og onkel til Olav Tryggvason. Sigurd var i tjeneste hos Kong Valdemar av Gardarrike i Kiev.